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AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE 
PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 
CHICAGO.  ILLINOIS 


Bgents 
THE  BAKER  8c  TAYLOR  COMPANY 

NBW   TOBK 

THE  CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

LONDON  AND  KDINBUBGH 


Agricultural  Education 
in  the  Public  Schools 


A  Study  of  Its  Development  with 

Particular  Reference  to  the 

Agencies  Concerned 


BY 

BENJAMIN  MARSHALL  DAVIS 

Professor  of  Agricultural  Education  in  Miami  Uni-versity 


WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION  BY 

CHARLES  HUBBARD  JUDD 

Director  of  the  School  of  Education 
The  University  of  Chicago 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 
CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS 


Copyright  1912  By 
The  University  of  Chicago 


All  Rights  Reserved 


Published  March  191 2 


Composed  and  Printed  By 

The  Univenity  ol  ChicaKo  Press 

Chicago.  Illinois,   U.S.A. 


Education 
Library; 

PREFACE  Qgq^ 

This  work  comprises  a  series  of  studies,  carried  on  since  the 
fall  of  1909,  on  agricultural  education  in  the  elementar)'-  and 
secondary  schools  of  the  United  States  with  special  reference 
to  the  various  agencies  promoting  it.  Much  care  has  been  taken 
to  make  the  bibliography  representative  of  the  literature  of  the 
different  phases  of  the  subject,  and  to  annotate  each  title  so 
as  to  give  the  reader  a  brief  account  of  the  original  article  or 
book.  This  seemed  more  essential  than  to  undertake  to  give 
even  an  approximately  complete  summary  of  the  literature  of 
the  subject,  especially  since  such  a  summary  would  include  many 
times  the  number  of  titles  cited. 

The  writer  has  attempted,  as  the  subtitle  indicates,  to  bring 
i  together  the  work  of  the  various  agencies  promoting  agricultural 
^reeducation  in  the  public  schools,  and  to  show  the  contribution 
each  has  made  or  is  making  to  its  development.  In  this  new 
and  rapidly  developing  subject  of  education  it  is  important  for 
all  who  are  interested  to  know  the  methods  used  and  results 
obtained  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  and  to  recognize  the 
extent  of  public  interest  as  expressed  in  federal,  state,  and 
private  activities  in  its  behalf. 

fThe  demands  for  instruction  in  agriculture  in  elementary 
and  secondary  schools  have  grown  so  rapidly  as  to  present  a 
serious  problem  to  teachers,  both  as  to  readjustment  of  their 
^  school  work  and  as  to  their  own  preparation  to  teach  the  sub- 
j  ject.  If  this  account  of  the  development  of  agricultural  educa- 
U  tion,  such  as  is  actually  taking  place  in  different  parts  of  the 
K  country,  with  illustrations  of  types  of  instiniction,  and  with 
J—  sources  of  further  information,  may  be  of  some  service  to  the 
f-     teachers  of  our  rural  schools,  or  to  others  interested  in  rural 

education,  the  writer  will  feel  well  repaid  for  all  his  efforts. 
f*  The  material  for  these  studies  has  been  gathered  from  all 


P 

i  865522 


vi  PREFACE 

available  sources,  much  of  it  from  personal  correspondence. 
The  writer  wishes  to  express  his  appreciation  of  the  cordial  and 
ready  response  with  which  his  numerous  inquiries  have  been 
met.  He  is  under  particular  obligation  to  Director  Charles  H. 
Judd,  School  of  Education,  the  University  of  Chicago,  for  writ- 
ing the  introduction,  and  for  his  many  helpful  suggestions  during 
the  progress  of  the  work;  to  Mr.  D.  J.  Crosby,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  for  the  critical  reading  of  several 
chapters,  and  for  other  assistance;  to  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Education,  to  the  State  Departments  of  Education,  and  to 
many  individuals  who  have  furnished  information  not  other- 
wise accessible. 

Benjamin  Marshall  Davis 

Miami  University,  Oxpord,  Ohio 
March,  191 2 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introductory  Note i 

CBXPTES. 

I.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  7 

II.  United  States  Bureau  of  Education 14 

III.  State  Departments  of  Education  and  State  Legisla- 
tion      19 

IV.  Summary  of  State  Legislation  and  of  Work  of  State 
Departments  of  Education  for  1910-11       ....  27 

V.  Agricultural  Colleges,  Including  Extension  Work, 
Departments  of  Agricultural  Education,  and  Summer 

Schools  for  Teachers 38 

VI.  State  Normal  Schools 47 

Vn.  National  Education  Association — State  and  Other 

Teachers'  Associations 58 

VIII.  Educational  Periodicals 67 

IX.  Periodical  Literature 75 

X.  State  Organizations  for  Agriculture-Farmers'  In- 
stitutes     85 

XI.  Agricultural  Societees 94 

XII.   Boys'  Agricultural  Clubs 105 

XIII.  Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools 115 

XIV.  Textbooks 127 

Bibliography 132 

Index i6i 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE 

Agricultural  education  is  the  most  widely  and  energetically  ^"^ 
cultivated  form  of  industrial  education  in  this  country  at  the 
present  time.  Federal  and  local  grants  have  made  possible 
agricultural  courses  of  different  grades,  and  there  is  a  large 
body  of  literature  relating  to  scientific  agriculture.  This  de- 
velopment of  agricultural  education  is  due,  in  the  first  place, 
to  the  large  number  of  people  who  are  dependent  upon  agri- 
culture for  their  livelihood.  Any  improvements  which  can  be  ^ 
made  in  the  methods  of  raising  crops  or  live  stock  are  of  im- 
mediate importance  to  a  large  body  of  American  citizens.  In 
the  second  place,  the  economic  value  of  the  products  of  agri- 
culture has  made  it  important  for  the  community  at  large  to 
organize  agencies  which  shall  improve  agricultural  conditions 
throughout  the  country.  Even  the  federal  government  has  found 
it  expedient  to  organize  bureaus  of  investigation,  and  these 
bureaus  of  investigation  have  naturally  come  to  be  centers  of 
educational  activity.  There  have  thus  arisen  organized  centers 
for  the  collection  and  distribution  of  agricultural  information. 
In  the  third  place,  the  social  movement  which  has  been  carrying 
the  population  in  very  large  measure  away  from  rural  districts 
to  the  cities  has  made  everyone  aware  of  the  necessity  of  de- 
veloping an  educational  system  that  shall  make  farm  activities 
attractive  to  intelldgent  and  well-trained  people.  Finally,  students 
of  education  have  come  to  see  that  the  needs  of  children,  quite 
apart  from  the  needs  of  society  at  large,  dictate  a  greater  em- 
phasis upon  outdoor  experiences.  The  doctrine  that  children 
need  to  come  into  contact  with  Nature  has  been  presented  in 
different  ways  at  different  times.  On  the  negative  side  it  has 
been  said  that  children  should  be  taken  away  from  books  and 
from  the  artifioial  surroundings  of  large  communities  and  should 
be  brought  into  contact  with  things  and  natural  laws.     This, 


2  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

we  are  told,  can  be  accomplished  best  on  the  farm.  Again,  on 
the  affirmative  side,  it  has  been  said  that  the  resourcefulness 
of  the  man  who  is  engaged  in  the  various  occupations  of  the 
farm  cultivates  breadth  of  character  and  initiative  in  dealing 
with  all  the  engagements  of  life.  Whatever  the  terms  em- 
ployed, the  professional  educator  has  come  to  regard  the  op- 
portunities which  are  presented  in  farm  life  as  valuable  means 
of  training  children. 

With  the  recognition  of  these  numerous  and  strong  motives 
for  the  development  of  agriculture  as  a  part  of  the  educational 
system,  there  comes  a  whole  train  of  difficult  problems  of 
organization.  Even  those  who  recognize  the  importance  and 
value  of  agricultural  education  are  in  doubt  as  to  the  best  methods 
of  attaining  the  result  that  they  regard  as  ideal.  One  of  the 
first  questions  that  arises  is  the  question  of  the  level  of  training 
at  which  agricultural  courses  shall  be  introduced.  Is  the  study 
of  any  phase  of  farming  a  suitable  subject  for  elementary  school 
children,  and,  if  so,  what  simple  dements  of  the  subject  can 
properly  be  taught  at  this  early  stage  of  school  work?  On 
the  other  hand,  the  problem  of  finding  suitable  agricultural 
courses  for  higher  institutions  \%  no  less  difficult.  The  agri- 
cultural colleges  have  found  themselves  in  frequent  conflict 
with  the  traditional  colleges.  The  agricultural  colleges  have 
sometimes  been  criticized  for  conducting  a  lower  grade  of  work 
than  that  which  is  conducted  by  other  institutions  of  higher 
learning.  In  spite  of  these  criticisms,  in  some  quarters  the 
agricultural  courses  have  developed  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
conventional  academic  courses  have  almost  disappeared  from 
the  institutions  in  the  state.  In  either  of  these  cases  the  difficulty 
of  organizing  advanced  work  is  manifest.  It  has  sometimes 
been  suggested  that  the  agricultural  high  school  is  a  better 
means  of  promoting  agricultural  education  than  is  the  elementary 
school  or  the  university.  When  an  agricultural  high  school 
has  been  organized  it  has  degenerated  at  times  into  an  ordinary 
high  school  with  one  or  two  theoretical  courses  in  agriculture. 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE  3 

In  other  cases  the  agricultural  high  school  has  differentiated 
itself  so  completely  from  the  conventional  high  school  that 
the  students  who  graduate  from  these  separate  and  distinct  in- 
stitutions have  been  unable  to  go  forward  to  higher  institutions. 
All  of  these  cases  show  the  difficulty  which  is  encountered  in 
organizing  the  work  in  agricultural  education. 

One  of  the  cardinal  difficulties  in  the  organization  of  agri- 
cultural education  is  the  lack  of  trained  teachers.  Teachers  who 
have  grown  up  in  the  normal  schools  or  those  who  go  into  the 
profession  from  colleges  and  high  schools  without  a  normal 
training,  very  sddom  have  practical  experience  adequate  to  give 
them  a  comprehension  of  farm  problems.  On  the  other  hand, 
those  who  have  practical  experience  find  it  difficult  to  secure  the 
scientific  training  which  is  necessary  to  make  instruction  in 
farming  sufficiently  advanced  to  justify  calling  it  a  science. 
The  graduates  of  agricultural  colleges  are  either  so  much  in  de- 
mand for  practical  positions,  or  so  poorly  qualified  for  the  special 
work  of  teaching,  that  they  do  not  enter  upon  the  teaching 
profession  after  they  complete  their  agricultural  course.  The 
result  of  this  whole  situation  is  that  there  are  many  efforts  being 
made  to  teach  agriculture  from  textbooks,  and  these  efforts  are 
being  criticized  by  practical  people  and  educators  alike  as  too 
abstract.  In  other  quarters  instruction  lacks  that  systematic 
and  progressive  character  which  can  come  only  from  the  study 
of  the  sciences  upon  which  farming  must  ultimately  rest.  Prac- 
tical farmers  are  no  better  teachers  than  the  abstract  students 
of  textbooks.  The  situation  requires  a  careful  correlating  of 
the  different  agencies  that  have  been  working  in  the  direction 
of  a  more  scientific  and  at  the  same  time  more  practical  course 
of  study  in  agriculture. 

Professor  Davis  has  attacked  the  problem  of  the  co-ordina- 
tion of  all  the  agencies  now  at  work  on  the  problem  of  agri- 
cultural education.  He  has  performed  in  this  book  a  service 
which  will  be  appreciated  by  all  who  have  any  large  knowledge 
of  the  problem  and  of  the  difficulties  which  the  movement  en- 


4  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

counters.  He  has  made  an  effort  to  canvass  the  wliole  field 
of  agricultural  education  and  to  give  a  detailed  exposition  of 
the  agencies  that  are  now  at  work  in  building  up  a  rational  course 
of  agricultural  education.  He  has  presented  more  fully  than 
anyone  else  the  materials  which  define  the  problem  and  which 
make  it  possible  for  the  teacher  to  meet  the  problem  intelligently. 
The  annotated  bibliography  at  the  end  of  the  book,  with  text 
references,  will  do  much  to  make  the  best  material  available 
for  anyone  who  finds  it  necessary  to  iget  hold  of  this  material 
through  independent  study.  Mr.  Davis'  statement  of  the  work 
that  is  being  done  by  various  organized  agencies  will  make  it 
possible  for  the  teacher  to  come  in  contact  with  all  of  the  forces 
that  are  working  to  build  up  this  special  type  of  training.  The 
book  serves,  therefore,  as  a  general  introduction  to  the  study  of 
agricultural  education. 

Professor  Davis'  book  is  not  a  textbook  of  the  ordinary 
type,  in  which  a  limited  body  of  materials  is  presented  in  detail, 
but  it  is  a  type  of  textbook  which  is  certain  to  become  more 
common  in  our  normal  schools  and  in  the  teachers'  libraries.  It 
is  a  textbook  which  discusses  the  problems  of  education  by  dis- 
cussing the  situation  into  which  education  fits  and  the  instruments 
that  may  be  used  in  solving  its  problems.  It  is  an  introductory 
encyclopedia  rather  than  a  brief  summary.  The  student  in 
the  normal  school  who  is  trained  not  merely  to  understand  the 
cpntent  of  a  single  textbook,  but  to  take  a  bibliography  in  hand 
and  follow  its  guidance  into  the  larger  body  of  literature,  will 
have  an  independent  mastery  of  the  subject  which  cannot  be 
gained  by  any  simple  perusal  of  a  single  textbook.  Professor 
Davis  has  performed  a  genuine  service,  therefore,  for  normal 
schools  in  preparing  a  type  of  textlxx)k  which  encourages  the 
student  to  go  to  the  original  sources,  and  shows  him  how  to 
get  at  the  different  types  of  material  which  he  will  need  in 
his  own  practical  professional  life. 

The  teacher  who  has  graduated  from  the  normal  school  and 
is  in  practical  service  often  finds  the  textbooks  that  are  offered 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE  5 

for  his  instruction  too  elementary  and  too  closely  confined  to  the 
kind  of  material  with  which  he  has  already  acquainted  him- 
self in  earlier  courses  prior  to  his  work  as  a  teacher.  Such  a 
book  as  that  which  Professor  Davis  has  here  presented  overcomes 
the  difficulties  which  attach  to  the  reading"  of  such  an  elementary 
book.  He  has  opened  up  for  the  teacher  not  merely  the  possi- 
bilities of  reading  his  own  book,  but  also  the  possibility  of  se- 
curing without  serious  difficulty  an  extensive  body  of  productive 
literature  to  which  this  book  serves  as  a  stimulating  introduction. 
Finally,  the  professional  student  of  education  will  find  in 
this  book  material  which  will  give  him  a  general  view  of  one 
phase  of  industrial  education  that  will  be  very  helpful  to  him 
in  the  discussion  of  the  whole  matter  of  educational  reform  for 
practical  results.  If  one  wishes  to  discuss  the  best  methods  of 
organizing  courses  for  the  industrial  classes  he  should  certainly 
begin  with  a  careful  review  of  that  which  has  already  been 
undertaken  in  agriculture.  There  are  some  bibliographies  of 
agricultural  literature,  and  there  are  scattered  discussions  of  the 
different  organizations  which  deal  with  this  problem,  but  nowhere 
is  there  a  carefully  selected  summary  of  the  whole  movement. 
Professor  Davis  has  in  this  respect  performed  a  service  which 
will  be  appreciated  by  students  of  education  and  by  the  later 
historian  of  education  who  wishes  to  secure  in  compact  form  a 
statement  of  what  is  now  being  undertaken. 

Chas.  H.  Judd 

Chicago 
March,  191 2 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Historically  the  movement  for  agricultural  education  in  the 
United  States  dates  back  to  1785  when  associations  for  the  pro- 
motion of  agriculture  began  to  be  formed.  A  few  years  later, 
in  1792,  mainly  in  response  to  the  agitation  of  these  associations, 
colleges  imdertook  to  provide  for  instruction  in  agriculture,  first 
Columbia,  and  then  Harvard  and  Yale   ( i )  .^ 

It  was  not,  however,  until  1862  that  the  real  movement  for 
scientific  agriculture  had  its  beginning.  Congress  of  this  year 
authorized  the  establishment  of  a  department  of  agriculture 
(2,  p.  57),  and  also  passed  the  Morrill  Act  giving  to  each  state 
a  grant  of  land  with  which  to  establish  a  state  college  of  agri- 
culture and  mechanic  arts  (2,  pp.  62-64).  The  Hatch  Act  of 
1887  provided  for  agricultural  experiment  stations  in  each  state 
and  territory  (2,  pp.  64-66),  and  during  the  following  year  the 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations  was  created  as  a  separate  bureau 
of  the  Department  to  serve  as  the  official  head  of  all  the  agri- 
cultural experiment  stations. 

On  July  I,  1862,  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture was  organized.  Its  growth  as  expressed  in  terms  of 
people  employed  and  total  expenditures  may  be  seen  by  com- 
paring 29,  the  number  employed  the  first  year,  with  17,819,  the 
number  employed  in  1908,  and  $63,704.21  expendM  the  first  year 
with  $13,628,696  expended  in  1908.  For  the  last  twenty  years 
Congress  has  provided  liberally  for  the  maintenance  of  the  De- 
partment. It  has  been  estimated  that  nearly  $100,000,000  has 
been  spent  during  this  time  for  agricultural  research  and  edu- 
cation, for  the  most  part  through  the  Department.  This  vast 
expenditure,  of  course,  would  never  have  been  made  had  it  not 

'  Figures  in  parentheses  refer  to  corresponding  numbers  in  the  annotated  bibliography , 
p.  132. 

7 


8  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

been  justified  by  results  as  measured  in  dollars  and  cents.  In 
1908  the  agricultural  products  of  our  country  amounted  to 
$7,778,000,000.  The  value  of  the  corn  crop  alone  amounted  to 
J  $1,615,000,000.  It  may  be  readily  seen  that  a  very  slight  in- 
crease in  yield  per  acre  would  aggregate  many  times  the  run- 
ning expenses  of  all  the  institutions  engaged  in  promoting  agri- 
culture. The  work  of  the  Department  has  made  possible  not 
only  a  slight  increase  but  in  nearly  all  kinds  of  production  a 
very  large  increase  (2,  pp.  44-46). 

The  aim  of  the  Department  has  been  twofold :  first,  scientific, 
developing  a  scientific  knowledge  of  every  phase  of  agriculture ; 
second,  educational,  conveying  this  knowledge  to  all  the  people. 
In  both  these  aspects  of  its  work  the  Department  has  been  closely 
allied  with  the  land-grant  agricultural  colleges.  Indeed,  the 
Department  and  the  agricultural  experiment  stations  in  differ- 
ent states  and  territories,  organized  chiefly  as  departments  of 
land-grant  colleges,  stand  at  the  head  of  our  system  of  agri- 
cultural research  and  education. 

Since  1889  the  Association  of  American  Agricultural  Col- 
leges and  Experiment  Stations  has  been  holding  annual  meet- 
ings. Members  of  the  Department  take  prominent  part  in  these 
meetings,  and  the  proceedings  are  published  through  the  Ofiice 
of  Experiment  Stations.  The  director  of  this  office  is  chair- 
man and  the  specialist  in  agricultural  education  is  secretary. 
The  educational  policy  of  agricultural  colleges,  such  as  terms  of 
admission,  courses  of  study,  matters  of  administration,  etc.,  is 
determined  largely  by  a  standing  committee  of  this  association 
known  as  the  "committee  on  instruction  in  agriculture."  For 
several  years  agricultural  instruction  of  collegiate  grade  has 
been  well  organized  and  on  a  good  working  basis.  Recently  the 
efforts  of  this  committee  have  been  directed  to  a  consideration 
of  instruction  of  secondary  grade.  A  course  of  study  has  l^een 
worked  out  in  considerable  detail  to  serve  as  a  model  for  schools 
contemplating  such  instruction  (3,  4).  Some  attention  has  also 
been  given  to  work  in  elementary  schools  (5,  20). 


UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE  9 

The  Department  is  organized  into  eleven  scientific  bureaus 
as  follows :  weather,  animal  industry,  plant  industry,  forest  serv- 
ice, chemistry,  soils,  entomology,  biological  survey,  statistics, 
experimental  stations,  and  public  roads.  All  of  these  are  doing 
much  to  encourage  and  help  agricultural  education  throughout 
the  country.  In  a  general  way  they  reach  the  people  through 
publications,  a  great  many  of  which  are  distributed  free  (6,  7,  9) 
while  others  are  for  sale  at  a  nominal  price  (7,  8).  Those  for 
free  distribution  are  as  a  rule  written  in  a  popular  style,  free 
from  technical  terms,  and  are  easily  understood  by  the  aver- 
age reader.  The  series  known  as  "Farmers'  Bulletins"  contains 
contributions  from  all  the  bureaus  and  there  is  scarcely  any 
phase  of  agriculture  that  has  not  received  attention.  These 
bulletins  are  especially  useful  to  elementary  and  secondary 
schools  giving  instruction  in  agriculture  (7).  Many  of  them 
dealing  with  such  subjects  as  birds,  insects,  tree  planting,  school 
gardening,  and  plant  propagation  would  be  useful  in  any  ele- 
mentary or  high  school. 

Besides  general  contributions  to  agricultural  education  made 
by  all  the  bureaus  of  the  Department,  certain  bureaus  are  taking 
an  active  part  in  public  education. 

The  Weather  Bureau  from  its  central  office  at  Washington 
and  through  its  officials  at  various  stations  throughout  the 
country  is  doing  much  to  encourage  the  study  of  meteorology. 

During  the  school  year  a  million  or  more  children  of  the  public  schools 
make  weather  observations  and  study  the  daily  weather  maps  and  fore- 
casts. From  its  earliest  days  the  Weather  Bureau  has  co-operated  to  some 
extent  in  public-school  work,  and  during  the  past  ten  years  this  co-operation 
has  been  widely  extended.  The  public  schools  and  the  Weather  Bureau 
have  a  mutual  interest  in  the  matter.  The  school  authorities  have  found 
in  the  study  of  the  weather  with  the  assistance  of  the  Weather  Bureau  a 
means  of  satisfying  part  of  the  requirements  of  modern  methods  of  study; 
and  the  Weather  Bureau  is  able  through  the  school  gradually  to  dispell 
popular  superstitions  and  fallacious  beliefs  that  have  hampered  its  work 
....  and  to  enable  both  the  commercial  and  the  agricultural  world  to  make 
more  intelligent  and  more  complete  use  of  the  forecasts,  special  warnings, 
weather  maps,  and  climatological  publications  (10,  p.  267). 


lO        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

About  15  per  cent  of  the  daily  issue  of  weather  maps  is  used 
in  the  pubHc  schools.  Lectures  are  given  by  officials  of  the 
Weather  Bureau  at  teachers'  institutes  and  elsewhere.  The 
policy  of  this  bureau  has  been  to  assist  the  public  schools  in 
every  way  possible  as  far  as  general  duties  to  the  public  will 
permit. 

The  Forest  Service  is  reaching  the  schools  through  its  publi- 
cations, lantern  slides,  and  other  illustrative  material  concerning 
the  conservation  of  the  forests  of  our  country.  The  Forest 
Service  believes  that  "the  public  school  should  treat  forestry  as 
one  of  the  important  economic  and  public  questions  in  the  life 
of  the  world"  (11,  p.  6),  and  that  forestry  should  have  a  promi- 
nent place  in  our  education.  "Below  the  secondary  school 
forestry  should  form  part  of  nature-study,  arithmetic,  and  gen- 
eral geography;  in  the  high  school,  of  United  States  history, 
civics,  physical  geography,  commercial  geography,  botany,  agri- 
culture, and  woodworking"  (11,  p.  7).  One  of  the  recent  efforts 
of  the  Forest  Service  to  co-operate  with  the  public  schools  is 
through  phenolog^cal  studies  of  our  native  forest  trees.  On  re- 
quest the  Forest  Service  will  send  to  any  school  a  set  of  blanks 
on  which  to  record  observations  on  such  matters  as  general 
character  of  country,  situation  of  trees,  character  of  season, 
date  of  swelling  of  buds,  of  bursting  of  buds,  of  beginning  of 
leafing  out,  of  general  leafing  out,  of  blossoming,  of  change  of 
color  in  foliage,  etc.  (dates  of  fifteen  special  observations  in  all). 
These  blanks  are  accompanied  by  a  circular  giving  complete 
directions  for  study  of  trees  and  making  records.  This  work 
is  of  great  value  not  only  in  encouraging  pupils  to  make  a  close 
acquaintance  with  trees,  but  also  in  the  reaction  that  must  come 
to  them  in  feeling  that  they  are  materially  assisting  the  govern- 
ment in  its  work.  Similar  phenological  studies  of  common 
flowering  plants  have  been  carried  on  very  successfully  for  a 
number  of  years  by  the  public-school  children  of  Canada  under 
the  direction  of  the  Botanical  Club  of  Canada.  Suggestions 
for  forest  nurseries  for  public  schools  have  also  been  prepared 


UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE        ii 

by  the  Forest  Service  (12).  Directions  are  given  in  considerable 
detail  showing  just  what  to  do  to  establish  a  nursery  in  con- 
nection with  an  average  school.  Three  other  publications  are 
soon  to  be  issued :  Forestry  in  Nature-Study,  Forestry  in  Agri- 
culture, and  Forestry  in  Geography. 

The  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  has  been  especially  active  in 
promoting  the  movement  for  school  gardens.  At  Washington, 
under  direct  supervision  of  the  Bureau,  experiments  in  school 
gardening  have  been  carried  on  for  several  years.  A  part  of 
the  government  grounds  with  a  greenhouse  has  been  devoted 
to  this  work.  The  Bureau  sends  to  schools  throughout  the 
country  special  packages  of  vegetable  and  flower  seeds  accom- 
panied by  circulars  containing  directions  for  planting  and  care 
of  school  gardens  (13,  14).  The  Bureau  also  furnishes  sets  of 
one  hundred  samples  of  seeds  of  economic  and  wild  plants  put  up  in  glass 
vials,  labeled  with  Latin  and  common  names  and  arranged  in  an  herbarium 
tray  for  reference  purposes.  The  seeds  and  the  work  of  preparation  are 
furnished  by  this  office  free  of  charge,  but  it  is  necessary  for  those  desiring 
sets  to  supply  the  tray  and  vials  used.  These  can  be  obtained  at  a  cost  of 
$1.50  from  Messrs.  Mackall  Bros.,  9th  and  H  Streets,  N.E.,  of  this  city 
[Washington,  D.C.],to  whom  remittances  should  be  made  direct  with  the 
request  that  the  material  be  forwarded  to  this  office.  At  the  same  time 
kindly  notify  us  that  such  remittance  has  been  made.* 

Another  phase  of  the  work  of  this  bureau  is  of  especial 
interest  because  of  its  remarkable  development  during  19 10 
and  191 1.  This  is  the  Junior  Demonstration  Work  among 
the  boys  of  the  southern  states  (15).  A  brief  summary  of 
this  work  is  given  in  chap.  xii. 

The  following  is  a  good  summary  of  the  educational  work  of 
the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations : 

While  the  other  bureaus  of  this  Department  are  doing  valuable  educa- 
tional work  along  the  lines  of  research  in  which  they  are  engaged  the 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations  is  the  general  agency  of  the  Department  for 
the  promotion  of  agricultural  education  throughout  the  United  States  and 
is  constantly  enlarging  the  scope  and  extent  of  this  branch  of  its  work. 

*  From  circular  letter:  "Seed  Laboratory,"  Bureau  of  Pant  Industry,  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. 


12        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

The  educational  work  of  this  Office  is  now  organized  into  two  branches, 
one  dealing  with  agricultural  colleges  and  schools  and  the  other  with  farm- 
ers' institutes  and  other  forms  of  extension  work  in  agriculture.  The 
work  of  the  Office  relating  to  agricultural  colleges  and  schools  includes 
four  general  classes:  (i)  The  collection  and  publication  of  information 
regarding  the  progress  of  agricultural  education  at  home  and  abroad; 
(2)  studies  of  different  grades  of  American  and  foreign  schools  in  which 
agriculture  is  taught;  (3)  work  in  co-operation  with  the  Association  of 
Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations  and  other  important  asso- 
ciations dealing  with  educational  matters ;  and  (4)  the  giving  aid  to  agricul- 
tural colleges  and  local  school  authorities  along  the  lines  of  agricultural 
education.  This  work  is  in  charge  of  Mr.  D.  J.  Crosby,  as  specialist  in 
agricultural  education. 

This  branch  of  the  Office  conducts  a  department  of  agricultural  educa- 
tion in  the  Experiment  Station  Record  (17),  prepares  and  publishes  statistics, 
courses  of  study,  circulars  of  information,  and  other  literature  relating  to 
agricultural  education,  aids  state  and  local  school  authorities  in  organizing 
agricultural  courses  in  schools  and  colleges  and  in  securing  competent  teach- 
ers, takes  part  in  important  agricultural  conventions  and  conferences,  aids 
teachers  in  securing  suitable  agricultural  literature  for  their  work,  and,  in 
short,  acts  as  a  clearing-house  for  agricultural  education  in  this  country 
(16,  pp.  7,  8). 

The  work  of  the  Office  dealing  with  farmers'  institutes  and 
extension  work  is  in  charge  of  Professor  John  Hamilton,  farm- 
ers' institute  specialist.  Although  all  the  work  undertaken  by 
this  branch  of  the  Office  has  to  do  with  agricultural  education 
as  presented  to  adults,  it  also  reaches  the  public  schools  indirectly 
through  correspondence  with  persons  interested  in  agricultural 
education  by  distributing  agricultural  literature,  by  preparing 
and  editing  bulletins,  illustrated  lectures,  and  courses  of  study 
for  movable  schools  of  agriculture  (133,  143).  In  the  movable 
schools  of  agriculture  a  course  is  offered  for  country  school 
teachers  including  nature-study,  school  gardens  and  grounds, 
and  school  architecture,  and  sanitation  (18,  p.  6). 

The  attitude  and  interest  of  the  Department  toward  unifying 
our  educational  system,  in  so  far  as  it  concerns  agriculture  and 
country  life,  into  a  complete  system  extending  from  the  ele- 
mentary schools,  through  the  secondary  schools,  into  the  col- 


UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE        13 

leges  and  graduate  schools  has  been  well  expressed  by  Assistant 
Secretary  Willet  M.  Hays  in  a  recent  address  (19,  pp.  4,  5). 
He  says : 

A  movement  is  well  begun  to  organize  better,  as  a  part  of  our  great 
American  school  system,  the  secondary  schools  as  to  meet  especially  the 
needs  of  country  life.  This  movement  contemplates  that,  below  and  leading 
to  our  more  than  60  state  colleges  of  agriculture  already  established,  we 
shall  have  300  to  400  agricultural  finishing  schools — practically  one  in  each 
country  congressional  district  of  ten  or  more  counties,  either  separate  or 
as  a  strong  department  of  an  existing  institution 

But  vastly  more  important  is  the  larger  movement  to  establish  a  system 
of  consolidated  rural  and  village  schools,  and  of  courses  in  agriculture  in 
town  and  city  schools  so  near  the  homes  of  farm  youth  that  something 
of  instruction  in  agriculture,  in  home  economics,  and  in  social  and  civil 
affairs,  as  well  as  in  the  accepted  subjects  of  a  so-called  general  education, 
shall  be  taught  to  all  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  farm.  To  meet  this  first 
need  the  consolidated  rural  school  in  the  open  country  and  the  consolida- 
tion of  rural  schools  about  the  villages  and  cities  is  rising  rapidly  into 
prominence  along  with  the  vocational  high  school;  and  many  city  and  non- 
public schools  of  secondary  and  higher  grade  are  seeking  to  add  agricul- 
tural instruction  to  their  courses  of  study 

It  is  conceded  that  the  large  and  important  task  of  supplying  trained 
teachers  for  approximately  30,000  consolidated  rural  schools  in  our  rich 
rural  communities,  for  thousands  of  town  and  city  schools,  for  100,000 
small  rural  schools  in  isolated  and  sparsely  settled  communities,  for  300  or 
400  large  agricultural  high  schools,  for  150  state  normal  schools,  and  for 
60  state  colleges  of  agriculture  may  be  taken  up  in  a  practical  way  and 
solved  in  one  or  two  decades.  The  demand  and  organization  for  training 
teachers  going  forward  together  will  meet  with  only  the  usual  pioneering 
difficulties. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 

Agricultural  education  receives  the  attention  of  the  Bureau 
of  Education  in  several  ways.  These  may  conveniently  be 
grouped  under  three  heads :  publications,  land-grant  colleges,  and 
legislation. 

Having  little  administrative  authority  except  that  relating  to 
land-grant  colleges  the  Bureau  has  confined  its  efforts  mainly 
to  its  publications  and  correspondence.  "No  other  educational 
office  of  the  world  has  done  so  extensive  literary  work  as  this 
office,"  is  the  fine  tribute  paid  by  the  Royal  Prussian  Commission 
of  1904  in  its  report  to  the  Prussian  Parliament.  The  Bureau's 
publications  consist  of  annual  reports,  special  reports,  circulars 
of  information,  and  bulletins. 

The  policy  of  the  Bureau  toward  agricultural  education  re- 
cently expressed  by  the  commissioner  applies  especially  to  its 
publications : 

It  can  do  its  best  I  think  as  a  co-ordinating  influence.  It  can  bring  to  the 
notice  of  less  favored  institutions  information  concerning  the  experience  of 
more  advanced  institutions.  It  can  call  attention  from  time  to  time  to 
the  relation  of  agricultural  education  to  general  education.  It  can  survey  the 
educational  field  and  possibly  point  out  dangers  to  be  averted  or  weak  places 
to  be  strengthened.  It  can,  finally,  discover  things  that  need  doing  and  are  not 
attended  to  by  any  other  agency,  and  can  see  that  some  part  of  such  lack  is 
supplied.  So  much  as  this  I  hope  the  Bureau  of  Education  may  be  able  to  do 
for  agricultural  education.  And  so  much  as  this,  I  may  say,  it  will  undertake 
to  do  as  far  as  its  resources  will  permit  (22,  p.  53). 

The  Bureau  has  done  much  already  in  two  ways:  one  by 
bringing  to  American  educators  the  work  of  foreign  countries, 
and  the  other  by  reviewing  the  work  being  done  in  various  parts 
of  this  country.  Of  the  former  the  most  important  are  the 
accounts  of  agricultural  education  in  Austria,  Belgium,  Canada, 
France,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  and  Prussia.  One  of  these 
publications  on  school  gardens  deserves  special  mention  (23). 

14 


UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION  15 

It  contains  a  very  complete  historical  account  of  school  gardens 
and  has  been  extensively  quoted  in  the  school-garden  literature 
of  this  country.  Of  the  reviews  of  work  in  our  own  country 
two  are  noteworthy.  One  written  at  the  beginning  of  the  move- 
ment for  instruction  in  elementary  agriculture  is  made  up  chiefly 
of  reprints  of  leaflets  from  Purdue  and  Cornell  universities  (24). 
The  other,  appearing  in  1907,  gives  an  account  of  the  present 
status  of  agricultural  education  throughout  the  world  (25). 

The  first  Morrill  Act  of  1862,  the  second  Morrill  Act  of  1890, 
and  the  Nelson  Act  of  1907  providing  for  government  aid  to 
agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges  are  administered  by  the 
Department  of  the  Interior  (21,  p.  31). 

The  annual  payments  under  the  acts  of  1890  and  1907  ate  made  on  certifi- 
cations of  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  which  are  based  upon  the  proper  ex- 
penditure of  preceding  appropriations.  All  of  these  reports  required  to  be 
made  by  the  act  are  collected  and  passed  upon  by  the  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion, upon  whose  recommendation  is  based  the  action  of  the  secretary 
(21,  p.  32). 

While  the  duties  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  in  his 
relation  to  land-grant  colleges  consist  chiefly  in  gathering  sta- 
tistics and  making  reports  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  he 
has  opportunities  for  making  suggestions  and  recommendations 
of  imjKjrtance  to  agricultural  education.  For  example,  in  his 
letter  of  April  17,  1907,  to  the  presidents  and  boards  of  control 
of  state  colleges  of  agriculture  and  mechanic  arts  he  calls  atten- 
tion to  a  provision  of  the  act  of  1907  "providing  for  courses  for 
special  preparation  of  instructors  for  teaching  the  elements  of 
agriculture  and  mechanic  arts"  and  adds,  "With  the  increasing 
number  of  secondary  schools  of  agriculture  and  of  industrial 
and  trade  schools,  there  will  arise  a  considerable  demand  for 
specially  prepared  teachers  to  give  instruction  in  special  branches 
of  study"  (26,  p.  870).  In  his  report  of  1908  to  the  Secretary 
of  the  Interior  he  gives  an  account  of  the  action  of  several  insti- 
tutions taking  advantage  of  this  provision  (27,  pp.  740,  741). 

On  July  I,  1909,  the  Bureau  appointed  a  specialist  in  land- 
grant  collie  statistics  who  is  expected  also  to  pay  attention  to 


i6        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

the  general  subject  of  agricultural  education  and  to  be  able  to 
furnish  information  and  advice  concerning  that  subject. 

The  Commissioner  of  Education  holds  an  important  advisory 
position  v^rith  reference  to  any  proposed  national  legislation  con- 
cerning education,  particularly  agricultural  education.  During 
the  sixtieth  session  of  Congress  several  bills  were  introduced 
providing  for  national  aid  to  education  in  agriculture  and  other 
industrial  subjects.  Of  these  the  most  important  were  the 
Burkett  bill  (S.  3,392)  providing  for  "the  advancement  of  in- 
struction in  agriculture,  manual  training,  and  home  economics 
in  the  state  normal  schools  of  the  United  States,"  and  the  Davis 
bill  (H.R.  534)  providing  in  a  similar  way  for  national  aid  to 
agricultural  and  industrial  education  in  the  secondary  schools 
only.  The  latter  was  finally  revised  (H.R.  18,204)  so  as  to 
include  the  provisions  of  the  Burkett  bill  (S.  3,392). 

The  Davis  bill  provides  for  annual  appropriation  of  "ten 
cents  per  capita  of  the  population  of  each  state  and  territory  and 
the  District  of  Columbia"  for  aid  to  maintain  instruction  in 
agriculture  and  home  economics  in  agricultural  schools  of  sec- 
ondary grade,  and  an  appropriation  of  one  cent  per  capita  to 
maintain  similar  instruction  in  state  and  territorial  normal 
schools  (24,  pp.  85-87). 

The  large  amount  of  money  concerned,  and  the  establishment 
of  separate  schools  not  already  a  part  of  our  national  system  of 
education  called  for  careful  study  and  deliberation.  The  Bureau 
of  Education  was  freely  consulted  in  the  matter.  No  one  had 
a  clearer  insight  into  the  far-reaching  influence  of  the  bill,  a 
clearer  understanding  of  its  importance  upon  the  economic  and 
educational  welfare  of  the  nation,  or  a  greater  appreciation  of 
the  principles  involved  in  such  legislation,  than  the  Commissioner 
of  Education.  In  a  letter  dated  September  26,  1907,  to  Mr. 
Davis  he  says : 

One  strong  argument  in  favor  of  such  national  aid,  when  extended  to 
special  forms  of  education  which  are  in  special  need  of  encouragement,  may 
be  drawn  from  the  workings  of  the  appropriation  for  support  of  land-grant 
colleges,  contained  in  the  second  Morrill  Act  of  August  30,  1890.    The  recent 


UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION  17 

effect  of  the  national  appropriations  under  that  act  has  been  to  stimulate 
greatly  the  support  of  the  land-grant  colleges  by  the  states  in  which  they 
are  situated. 

He  calls  attention  to  a  provision  of  the  measure  giving  adminis- 
trative authority  over  the  appropriations  therein  provided  to 
the  Department  of  Agriculture,  whereas  "appropriations  which 
are  primarily  for  agriculture  are  now  administered  by  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  and  these  which  are  primarily  for  edu- 
cation (land-grant  colleges)  are  administered  by  the  Bureau  of 
Education." 

I  think  [he  says!  as  matters  now  stand  this  is  a  good  working  division, 
particularly  as  the  relations  between  the  Bureau  of  Education  and  the  Office 
of  Experiment  Stations  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  are  very  close 
and  cordial.  Educational  interests  are  becoming  so  strongly  unified  through- 
out this  country,  and  in  fact  in  foreign  lands,  that  the  present  tendency 
points  to  unifying  of  government  activities  of  a  purely  educational  sort,  or 
of  predominantly  educational  sort,  under  the  OflRce  of  Education.  Another 
reason  for  bringing  the  activities  provided  in  your  bill  under  the  Bureau  of 
Education  is  that  they  deal  not  only  with  agricultural  high  schools  but 
with  high  schools  of  mechanic  arts  in  cities  as  well.  In  institutions  of 
both  classes,  while  industrial  ends  are  sought  and  industrial  means  employed, 
the  main  purpose,  as  I  understand  it,  is  educational. 

It  seems  to  me  worth  considering,  also,  the  question  whether  it  is 
advisable  that  rural  schools,  to  which  the  bill  relates,  should  in  all  cases  be 
designated  as  agricultural  high  schools.  There  is  still  a  good  deal  of  differ- 
ence of  opinion  as  to  whether  high-school  work  in  agriculture  may  be 
done  to  best  advantage  in  general  high  schools  which  are  properly  equipped 
on  the  agricultural  side,  or  in  agricultural  high  schools  which  pay  incidental 
attention  to  studies  other  than  agriculture.  It  is  likely,  in  fact,  that  we 
shall  have  institutions  of  both  types  for  many  years  to  come,  and  that  both 
of  them  will  do  good  and  efficient  work  in  the  promotion  of  agricultural 
education.  For  this  reason  it  seems  to  me  doubtful  whether  it  is  wise  to 
limit  the  distribution  of  the  fund  by  using  the  distinctive  designation  of 
agricultural  high  school. 

In  a  letter  to  Senator  Proctor,  dated  March  4,  1908,  the  whole 
matter  of  national  aid  as  proposed  by  the  Burkett  bill  and  by  the 
Davis  bill  is  carefully  reviewed.  The  entire  letter  should  be  read 
in  order  to  form  a  just  conclusion  of  the  Commissioner's  position. 
After  citing  the  difficulties  arising  from  our  complex  industrial 


i8        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

situation,  both  urban  and  rural,  he  recognizes  the  probable  need 
of  federal  aid  in  the  following  words: 

For  all  these  reasons  (referring  to  our  industrial  situation)  the  problem 
of  a  better  education  of  an  industrial  type,  in  both  country  and  city,  has 
steadily  become  more  acute.  It  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  these  growing 
needs  can  be  met  in  the  near  future  in  the  majority  of  the  states,  unless  the 
encouragement  of  federal  appropriations  be  added  to  the  efforts  of  the 
states  and  of  local  communities. 

While  approving  the  measure  in  principle  he  urges  "that  any- 
forward  step  which  the  national  government  may  take  in  the 
encouragement  of  public  education  should  be  carefully  weighed, 
and  given  its  proper  place  in  a  well-digested  general  policy." 
Furthermore,  the  conditions  in  several  states  are  widely  different, 
and  any  bill  should  be  framed  with  a  full  knowledge  of  these 
differing  conditions  in  order  that  it  may  be  made  sufficiently 
flexible  to  accomplish  the  best  results  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 
In  order  "to  make  possible  for  Congress  to  act  on  bills  like  S. 
3,392  with  full  knowledge  of  the  situation  and  needs  of  the 
country"  he  recommends  that  a  commission  be  appointed  to  make 
a  thorough  investigation  of  the  question  and  "report  to  Congress 
on  or  before  January  i,  1910."^ 

Neither  the  Davis  bill  nor  the  Commissioner's  recommenda- 
tion became  a  law.  The  bill  was  an  indication  of  the  interest  of 
the  country  at  large  in  extending  agricultural  education  into  the 
elementary  and  secondary  schools.  The  attitude  of  the  Bureau 
of  Education  was  one  of  accord  with  the  general  principles  on 
which  the  measure  was  based,  but  at  the  same  time  one  of 
caution,  recognizing  that  national  appropriation  to  agricultural 
education,  when  given,  should  be  of  the  greatest  possible  service.* 

"  For  permission  to  quote  from  letters  to  Congressmen  Davis  and  Senator  Proctor,  and  for 
other  assistance  in  getting  material  for  this  chapter,  the  writer  is  indebted  to  Commissioner 
Elmer  Ellsworth  Brown.  A  portion  of  his  letter  to  Senator  Proctor  appears  in  the  Commis- 
sioner's Report  of  1908. 

The  provisions  of  the  Davis  bill  have  been  revised  and  amended  and  presented  at  each 
session  of  Congress.  In  its  present  form  (Page  bill,  191 2)  it  has  a  much  wider  scope  than  the 
original  Davis  bill.  Dr.  P.  P.  Claxton,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  is  not  only 
actively  interested  in  the  proposed  legislation,  but  is  making  an  active  campaign  for  the 
betterment  of  rural  schools. 


CHAPTER  III 

STATE  DEPARTMENTS  OF  EDUCATION  AND  STATE 
LEGISLATION 

Each  state  or  territory  has  at  the  head  of  its  school  system  a 
central  office.  This  office  is  administered  in  most  states  by  a 
state  superintendent  or  state  commissioner  of  education,  and  in 
some  states,  as  in  Connecticut,  Delaware,  Rhode  Island,  and 
Massachusetts,  by  a  state  board  of  education  through  its  secre- 
tary or  commissioner  (29). 

These  state  offices  vary  in  details  and  plan  of  organization, 
and  somewhat  in  authority  over  educational  matters,  but  are  alike 
in  essential  respects.  But  however  efficient  the  departmental 
organizations,  the  personality  and  aggressiveness  of  those  in 
charge  count  for  much  in  the  influence  that  these  offices  exert 
in  the  educational  welfare  of  their  respective  states. 

It  is  especially  true  that  the  introduction  of  a  new  subject  of 
instruction  like  agriculture  may  be  greatly  hindered  or  promoted 
by  the  attitude  taken  by  the  state  office.  If  favorable,  the  subject 
may  be  recommended  for  legislation,  it  may  be  put  in  the  course 
of  study,  a  textbook  may  be  adopted,  through  personal  influence 
on  local  boards  it  may  be  introduced  in  certain  sections  of  the 
state,  interest  may  be  aroused  by  making  it  a  reading-circle  sub- 
ject, special  publications  may  be  issued  to  help  teachers  who  wish 
to  teach  the  subject,  by  promoting  interest  through  clubs  or  other 
organizations.  The  main  facts  concerning  the  efforts  of  all  the 
states  and  territories  in  the  promotion  of  agricultural  education 
in  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools  through  their  central 
offices  of  education  and  by  legislation  are  indicated  in  the  follow- 
ing tabulation. 

In  Delaware  interest  in  agricultural  education  has  not  seemed 
to  warrant  any  attention  from  its  state  department  of  educa- 
tion.     Kentucky,  although    it    is    an    agricultural    state,  has 

19 


20        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 


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apparently  shown  much  less  interest  in  agricultural  education 
than  have  other  southern  states.  This  may  be  readily  explained 
by  the  fact  that  until  1908  the  public-school  system  was  organized 
under  the  old  district  plan.  The  schools  were  practically  con- 
trolled by  about  25,000  school  trustees,  5,000  of  whom  could 
neither  read  nor  write.  The  action  of  the  legislature  of  1908 
has  changed  the  whole  aspect  of  the  Kentucky  educational  situa- 
tion, and  already  remarkable  progress  has  been  made  toward 
the  improvement  of  her  public  schools. 

A  glance  at  the  tabulation  shows  that  the  southern  states  have 
been  more  active  (at  least  recently)  in  the  promotion  of  agri- 
cultural education  than  the  northern  states.  This  activity  is  a 
part  of  the  general  educational  movement  extending  throughout 
the  South.  Educational  campaigns  have  recently  been  conducted 
in  several  of  these  states  and  have  done  much  to  increase  interest 
in  all  educational  matters. 

The  earliest  legislation  concerning  introduction  of  agriculture 
into  elementary  schools  was  the  Nixon  law  of  New  York  in  1897 
(24,  pp.  1610—14).  It  provided  for  the  extension  of  agriculture 
into  the  public  schools  under  the  direction  of  the  Agricultural  Col- 
lege of  Cornell  University.  It  was  carried  out  by  means  of  visits 
to  schools  and  lectures  before  teachers'  institutes,  and  by  means 
of  teachers'  and  pupils'  leaflets  for  use  in  rural  schools.  The 
Cornell  leaflets  not  only  stimulated  much  interest  in  elementary 
agriculture  and  nature-study  in  the  state  of  New  York  but  in 
other  states  as  well.  Similar  publications  have  since  been  issued 
by  agricultural  colleges  of  several  other  states. 

Requiring  the  teaching  of  elementary  agriculture  by  law  has 
not  met  with  unqualified  success.  In  some  states  where  it  is 
supposed  to  be  in  force  little  attention  is  paid  to  it  on  account  of 
lack  of  qualified  teachers.  The  establishment  of  state  secondary 
schools  of  agriculture  and  provision  for  state  aid  to  high  schools 
teaching  agriculture  is  probably  the  most  important  recent  legis- 
lation concerning  agricultural  education.  The  latter  form  of 
state  aid  seems  to  be  growing  in  favor. 


26        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Courses  of  study  vary  much  in  their  treatment  of  agriculture 
as  a  school  subject.  The  newness  of  the  subject  is  usually  recog- 
nized by  special  directions  and  suggestions  for  teaching.  These 
are  generally  given  in  a  state  school  manual  or  handbook  for 
teachers.  In  some  states  they  are  in  separate  publications.  In 
New  York,  for  example,  suggestions  are  outlined  in  syllabi,  one 
for  elementary  schools  and  one  for  high  schools.  In  other  states 
bulletins  on  certain  phases  of  the  subject  are  issued,  as  in  Michi- 
gan. 

Perhaps  the  most  significant  fact  showing  the  widespread 
general  interest  in  agricultural  education  in  elementary  and  sec- 
ondary schools  is  the  attitude  of  the  administrative  officers  of  the 
various  state  departments  of  education.  Special  mention  of  the 
subject  is  made  in  nearly  all  of  the  latest  annual  or  biennial  re- 
ports from  these  offices.  In  some  reports  considerable  space  is 
given  to  discussions  of  industrial  education  with  particular  refer- 
ence to  agriculture. 

Finally,  if  any  interpretation  is  to  be  made  of  the  attitude  of 
state  departments  of  education  toward  agricultural  education  it 
must  be  remembered  that  these  offices  represent  the  people,  and 
that  any  policy  or  action  taken  is  in  a  certain  sense  an  ex- 
pression of  public  opinion. 


CHAPTER  IV 

SUMMARY  OF  STATE  LEGISLATION  AND   OF  WORK  OF  STATE 
DEPARTMENTS  OF  EDUCATION  FOR  1910-11' 

The  general  discussion  in  the  previous  chapter  of  the  attitude 
of  states  toward  agricultural  education  in  elementary  and  sec- 
ondary schools  as  shown  by  legislation  and  state  departments  of 
education  was  based  on  data  collected  for  the  years  previous 
to  1 910.  In  order  to  bring  the  subject  up  to  date,  and  to  show 
the  rate  of  progress  in  the  development  of  agricultural  education 
in  elementary  and  secondary  schools  as  expressed  in  legislation 
and  in  the  activities  of  state  departments  of  education  the  fol- 
lowing summary  by  states  is  presented : 

Arkansas. — The  four  agricultural  high  schools  provided  for 
by  the  legislature  of  1909  opened  in  the  fall  of  1910  with  a 
large  attendance.  The  state  provides  about  $20,000  per  year 
for  support  and  maintenance  of  each  of  these  schools.  State 
aid  is  also  provided  for  high  schools  meeting  certain  require- 
ments fixed  by  the  State  Board  of  Education  (Act  328,  Laws 
of  191 1 ).  Although  the  law  does  not  specify  that  agriculture 
shall  be  taught  in  these  schools,  the  additional  support  re- 
ceived by  them  will  no  doubt  enable  many  to  give  instruction 
in  this  subject  as  was  suggested  by  the  Educational  Commission 
of  Arkansas  in  its  report  recommending  the  passage  of  this 
act.  The  state  office  of  education  is  active  in  its  co-operation 
with  the  boys'  agricultural-club  movement.  In  addition  to  the 
boys'  corn  clubs  already  being  promoted,  rural-school  poultry 
clubs  are  to  be  organized  in  1911-12. 

California. — High-school  boards  may  prescribe  an  additional 
course,  or  additional  courses  of  study,  "including  instruction  in 
manual  training,  domestic  science  and  art,  agriculture,  horti- 
culture, and  dairying,  to  be  duly  credited  as  part  of  such  high- 

'  Unless  otherwise  dted  the  authority  for  statements  made  in  this  chapter  is  contained  in 
letters  received  from  state  departments  of  education. 

27 


28        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

school  work"  (Cal.  Political  G:>de,  Sec.  1750,  May  i,  191 1). 
The  state  office  of  education  is  especially  active  in  promoting 
agricultural  education,  co-operating  with  the  college  of  agri- 
culture of  the  state  university. 

Idaho. — Rural  high  schools  are  established  with  agricultural 
instruction  as  part  of  the  course  of  study.  The  subject  of  agri- 
culture is  put  on  the  list  of  subjects  required  in  examination 
for  county  certificates  for  teaching. 

Iowa. — An  act  of  the  last  legislature  provides  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  departments  for  training  of  teachers  in  agriculture 
and  home  economics  in  forty  high  schools,  and  appropriates 
$500  special  state  aid  for  each  of  these  schools. 

Kansas. — A  sum  of  $250  annually  is  available  to  such  high 
schools  maintaining  normal  training^  as  may  organize  courses  in 
agriculture  and  domestic  science  under  rules  and  regulations 
to  be  formulated  by  the  state  board  of  education.  This  pro- 
vision is  also  extended  to  such  high  schools  as  may  hereafter 
introduce  normal  training.  A  law  was  also  passed  requiring 
an  examination  in  agriculture  for  all  forms  of  county  teachers' 
certificates. 

Louisiana. — During  the  years  1910-11  agricultural  depart- 
ments were  established  in  seventeen  high  schools,  and  the  legisla- 
ture of  1910  appropriated  $25,000  per  annum  for  the  years 
1910-11  to  aid  these  schools.  No  more  than  twenty  agricultural 
departments  will  be  recognized  during  the  sessions  of  1910-11 
and  1911-12.  The  following  is  a  summary  of  requirements 
made  by  the  state  board  of  education  for  the  departments  of 
agriculture  of  schools  receiving  state  aid :  A  demonstration 
farm  of  at  least  five  acres,  which  must  be  tightly  fenced,  and 
provided  with  barn  containing  full  equipment ;  apparatus  for 
teaching  science,  with  an  addition  of  at  least  $100  worth  of 
apparatus  especially  for  teaching  agriculture ;  at  least  $40  worth 
of  tools  and  $140  worth  of  farming  implements,  and  $250  for 

•  These  departments  for  normal  training  in  high  schools  were  provided  for  by  previous 
legislature. 


SUMMARY  OF  STATE  LEGISLATION  29 

maintenance;  the  teacher  of  agriculture  must  be  satisfactory  to 
the  state  department  of  education.  To  aid  the  department  of 
agriculture  and  home  economics  of  these  schools  a  course  of 
study,  including  state  requirements  for  recognition,  equipment, 
courses  of  study  and  practicums,  has  been  issued  by  the  state 
department  of  education  (32). 

Maine. — State  aid  is  given  to  high  schools  and  incorporated 
academies  maintaining  courses  in  agriculture. 

Maryland. — State  aid,  not  to  exceed  $2,500  each,  is  extended 
for  the  encouragement  of  high  schools  meeting  the  requirements 
set  forth  by  the  state  board  of  education.  Among  these  re- 
quirements is  provision  for  manual-training  and  domestic-science 
courses,  and  also  a  commercial  or  agricultural  course,  as  may 
be  determined  by  the  board  of  county  commissioners.  In  the 
suggested  course  of  agriculture  for  high  schools  two  recitations 
of  forty  minutes  each  and  one  double  laboratory  period  of  eighty 
minutes  are  devoted  to  this  subject  each  week  for  four  years. 
The  course  is  so  arranged  that  a  teacher  of  agriculture  may 
teach  in  more  than  one  high  school,  giving  not  less  than  two- 
fifths  of  his  time  to  schools  of  the  first  group,  and  to  no  more 
than  four  schools  of  the  second  group.  The  sum  of  $400  is 
available  to  high  schools  of  each  group  offering  such  instruction 
(School  Code  and  By-Laws  of  the  Maryland  State  Board  of 
Education). 

Massachusetts. — An  act  of  the  legislature  of  191 1  provides 
for  agricultural  departments  in  rural  high  schools.  Such  de- 
partments must  devote  their  entire  time  to  the  theory  and 
practice  in  agriculture.  This  work  may  be  elected  by  pupils  in 
the  school.  The  pupils  are  to  take  all  their  studies  except  the 
training  in  practical  farming  in  the  regular  classes  of  the 
school.  The  work  is  to  be  given  by  a  special  instructor  who 
is  to  devote  his  entire  time  to  the  theory  and  practice  of  farming. 
He  will  be  expected  to  supervise  certain  projects  on  the  farm 
conducted  by  pupils,  such  as  gardening,  poultry-keeping,  orchard- 
ing, small  animal  husbandry,  etc.,  and  to  give  in  the  classroom 


30        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

the  applied  science,  mathematics,  etc.,  that  may  be  necessary 
in  order  to  bring  about  the  practice  of  right  methods.  This 
teacher  is  not  to  teach  any  of  the  regular  sciences  in  the 
school  or  any  other  subject  save  those  that  may  be  neces- 
sary to  the  group  with  which  he  deals  in  practical  agri- 
culture. The  state  is  to  pay  two-thirds  of  the  salary  of  the 
instructor.  The  board  of  education  has  asked  for  $10,000  for 
the  years  1911-12  in  order  to  test  the  worth  of  this  scheme.^ 
Some  of  the  details  of  this  plan  for  part  time  or  project  method 
of  agricultural  instruction  are  given  in  chap,  xiii,  p.  125.  In 
addition  to  the  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  on 
Agricultural  Education  (166)  referred  to  in  chap,  xiii,  the 
board  has  issued  a  bulletin  on  Agricultural  Projects  for  Ele- 
mentary Schools  (33),  the  general  scheme  being  the  same  as 
for  projects  for  high  schools. 

Michigan. — The  State  Commission  on  Industrial  and  Agri- 
cultural Education  appointed  by  the  governor  of  Michigan  in 
the  summer  of  1909  has  made  in  its  report  the  following 
recommendations:  (i)  provision  of  at  least  one  high  school 
with  a  four-year  course  in  each  township;  (2)  introduction  as 
soon  as  possible  of  agriculture,  manual  training,  and  home 
economics  into  all  high  schools ;  (3)  certification  of  all  teachers 
of  agricultural  and  industrial  subjects;  (4)  state  supervision 
of  all  agricultural  and  industrial  courses;  (5)  state  aid  for 
schools  introducing  high-school  courses  in  agriculture  and  home 
economics,  as  follows :  (a)  the  total  not  to  exceed  $30,000 
for  the  first  year,  $50,000  for  the  third  year,  and  $100,000  for 
any  subsequent  year;  (6)  an  equal  division  of  the  funds  be- 
tween agriculture  and  home  economics  on  the  one  hand  and 
industrial  courses  on  the  other;  (c)  schools  certified  for  aid 
in  agriculture  and  home  economics  to  receive  $500  for  the  first 
teacher  employed,  and  $250  for  each  other  teacher  employed,  no 
school  to  receive  more  than  $1,000  in  all  {Rpt.  Mich.  State  Com. 
on  Indus,  and  Agric,  19 10). 

•From  chap.  471,  Massachusetts  Code,  and  from  letter  of  C.  A.  Prosser,  deputy  commis- 
Boner  of  education. 


SUMMARY  OF  STATE  LEGISLATION  31 

Minnesota. — Three  important  laws  relating  to  teaching  of 
agriculture  and  industrial  work  were  passed  by  the  legislature 
of  191 I : 

1.  The  Putnam  Act  amends  chap,  247,  General  Laws  of 
1909,  providing  for  state  aid  of  $2,500  annually  to  high  schools 
maintaining  agricultural  and  industrial  education,  so  as  to  author- 
ize rural  schools  to  become  associated  with  such  state-aided  high 
schools.  The  purpose  of  this  amendment  is  to  provide  "training 
and  instruction  in  such  agricultural  and  industrial  departments 
for  pupils  in  rural  schools,  and  to  extend  the  supervision  and 
influence  of  state  high  or  graded  schools  to  rural  schools;  one 
or  more  schools  may  become  associated  with  a  high  or  graded 
school  in  which  is  maintained  an  agricultural  and  industrial  de- 
partment as  herein  provided."  Each  high  school  entitled  to  re- 
ceive state  aid  of  $2,500  per  year  may  receive,  in  addition,  $150 
per  year  for  each  associated  school  district,  and  each ,  school 
district  forming  such  an  association  may  receive  $50  per  year 
(Putnam  Act,  Laws  of  191 1).  Thirty  high  schools  during 
1911-12  will  each  receive  $2,500  of  state  aid.  A  number  of 
these  will  receive  additional  state  aid  through  their  association 
with  school  districts  as  provided  for  in  the  Putnam  Act. 

2.  "Any  high  school  or  graded  school  which  shall  maintain 
such  a  course  as  the  High  School  Board  of  this  state  shall 
prescribe  in  agriculture  and  either  in  home  economics  or  in 
manual  training  shall  receive  annually  in  addition  to  other  aid 
the  sum  of  $1,000  for  maintaining  such  industrial  courses,  to 
be  appropriated  and  paid  from  the  appropriation  made  for  state 
aid  to  high  and  graded  schools"  (Benson-Lee  Act,  Laws  of 
191 1 ).  About  sixty  high  schools  will  receive  the  benefits  of 
this  law  during  the  school  year  1911-12. 

3.  Encouragement  for  consolidation  of  rural  schools  is  ex- 
tended by  the  state  through  the  Holmberg  Act.  Schools  are 
classified  as  A,  B,  and  C;  schools  of  class  A  to  have  at  least 
four  departments;  those  of  class  B,  three  departments;  those 
of  class  C,   two  departments.     Each  school  of  class  A  shall 


32        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

receive  $1,500;  of  class  B,  $1,000;  of  class  C,  $750.  The 
principal  of  each  school  in  any  of  these  classes  shall  be  qualified 
"to  teach  the  elements  of  agriculture  as  determined  by  the  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction"  (Holmberg  Act,  Laws  of 
1911). 

Mississippi. — "An  act  to  provide  for  the  establishment  of 
county  agricultural  high  schools  and  to  provide  for  the  equip- 
ment and  maintenance  of  the  same"  was  approved  March  16, 
1910  (chap.  122,  Annotated  G^de  of  School  Laws  of  Missis- 
sippi). According  to  provisions  of  this  act  any  town  or  rural 
community  in  a  county  may  bid  for  the  location  of  an  agri- 
cultural high  school.  But  no  bid  will  be  considered  that  does 
not  guarantee  to  the  county  a  donation  of  at  least  twenty  acres 
of  land,  suitable  school  building,  and  a  dormitory  with  dining- 
room  facilities  to  accommodate  forty  boarders.  If  no  com- 
munity makes  such  a  donation  the  above  equipment  may  be 
secured  out  of  any  tax  levy  made  for  agricultural  high-school 
purposes.  When  such  a  school  is  established  it  may  receive  state 
aid  to  the  amount  of  $1,500  annually.  The  state  department 
of  public  instruction  has  issued  a  course  of  study  and  general 
directions  for  conduct  of  these  schools  (34). 

Montana. — The  superintendent  of  public  instruction  urges 
that  the  subject  of  agriculture  be  given  the  time  assigned  to 
it  in  the  state  course  of  study.  In  this  course  the  subject  is 
outlined  for  the  pupils  of  the  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth 
grades. 

Nebraska. — Although  there  is  no  new  legislation  on  agri- 
cultural education,  considerable  interest  is  shown  in  the  subject  of 
normal  training  courses  (including  agriculture)  in  high  schools. 
A  bill  somewhat  similar  to  those  passed  in  Kansas  and  Iowa 
providing  for  agricultural  instruction  in  normal  training 
courses  in  high  schools  and  including  state  aid  was  presented  at 
the  last  legislature,  but  failed  to  pass. 

Nevada. — Provision  is  made  in  the  course  of  study  for  in- 
struction in  agriculture.  Three  high  schools  will  give  courses 
in  agriculture  in  1911-12. 


SUMMARY  OF  STATE  LEGISLATION  33 

New  Hampshire. — During  the  years  1911-12  seven  regularly 
approved  high  schools  will  give  courses  in  agriculture.  An 
approved  schooil  must  employ  only  graduates  of  recognized  agri- 
cultural colleges  to  give  instruction  in  agriculture.  The  high- 
school  law  of  1 90 1  makes  it  possible  to  introduce  the  subject 
of  agriculture  into  any  high  school  of  any  community  desiring 
it.  In  the  state  course  of  study  for  elementary  schools  agri- 
culture is  given  a  place. 

New  Jersey. — Legislation  relating  indirectly  to  agricultural 
education  is  found  in  the  provision  made  for  a  state  commissioner 
of  education  who  has,  with  the  consent  of  the  state  board  of 
education,  the  power  to  appoint  four  assistant  commissioners, 
one  of  whom  is  to  devote  his  time  "to  the  inspection  of  industrial 
education,  including  agriculture." 

New  York. — In  1910  the  state  made  provision  for  state  aid 
to  high  schools  giving  instruction  in  agriculture.  The  sum  of 
$500  may  be  apportioned  to  any  city  or  union  free  school 
district  maintaining  a  school  of  agriculture,  mechanic  arts,  and 
home-making  for  thirty-eight  weeks  in  a  year,  subject  to  approval 
of  the  state  commissioner  of  education  (162).  Twenty  schools 
have  definitely  adopted  the  special  agricultural  course  for  the 
year  1911-12,  and  will  receive  state  aid.  The  New  York  plan 
is  discussed  in  some  detail  in  chap,  xiii,  p.  123.  In  the  law 
of  1910  relating  to  agricultural  education  provision  is  also  made 
for  the  training  of  teachers  of  agriculture  for  high  schools  at 
the  state  schools  of  agriculture  at  St.  Lawrence  University,  at 
Alford  University,  and  at  Morrisville. 

North  Carolina. — An  act  was  passed  by  the  legislature  of 
191 1  providing  for  the  estabHshment  and  maintenance  of  county 
farm-life  schools  and  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture  and  home- 
making  (County  Farm-Life  School  law,  ratified  March  3,  191 1). 
"The  aim  of  said  school  shall  be  to  prepare  boys  for  agricultural 
pursuits  and  farm  life  and  to  prepare  the  girls  for  home-making 
and  housekeeping  on  the  farm.  The  course  of  study  in  said 
school  shall  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  state  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  and  an  advisory  board  in  farm-life  schools, 


34        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

to  be  appointed  by  him;  Provided,  however,  that  the  course  of 
study  shall  include  practical  work  on  the  farm,  and  practical 
work  in  all  subjects  relating  to  housekeeping  and  home-making 
by  the  girls,"  The  state  appropriates  $25,000  to  each  school 
to  aid  in  maintenance  and  support.  The  school  cannot  be  lo- 
cated in  any  city  or  town  of  more  than  one  thousand  inhabitants, 
nor  within  two  miles  of  any  city  or  town  of  more  than  five 
thousand  inhabitants,  A  complete  equipment  consisting  of 
school  building,  dormitory  buildings,  barn  and  dairy  building, 
a  farm  of  not  less  than  twenty-five  acres  of  good  land,  and  neces- 
sary furnishing,  apparatus,  and  farm  tools,  all  of  which  must 
be  approved  by  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
Provision  is  also  made  for  a  high-school  department  to  be 
maintained  in  each  farm-life  school  that  may  not  be  established  at 
the  same  place  with  some  existing  county  high  school.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  aim  already  indicated,  it  is  intended  for  each  school 
"to  conduct  agricultural  and  farm-life  demonstration  and  ex- 
tension work  throughout  the  country;  to  hold  township  and 
district  meetings  for  the  farmers  and  farmers'  wives  in  all  parts 
of  the  county  from  time  to  time;  to  co-operate  with  the  county 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  and  public-school  teachers 
in  stimulating,  directing,  and  supervising  farm-life  work  in  the 
public  high  schools  and  elementary  schools,  and  in  providing 
instruction  in  such  work  for  the  teachers  through  the  County 
Teachers'  Association  and  through  special  short  courses  of  study 
for  public-school  teachers;  to  provide,  also,  at  said  school  short 
courses  of  study  in  farm-life  subjects  for  adult  farmers  and 
their  wives,  and  to  hold  at  the  school  county  meetings  for  fanners 
and  their  wives  for  instruction  and  demonstration  work  from 
time  to  time,"  Under  provisions  of  this  law  two  counties  have 
voted  for  such  schools,  and  several  more  have  the  matter  under 
consideration  and  will  call  elections  later. 

North  Dakota. — Three  important  measures  in  the  interest  of 
agricultural  education  became  laws  in  191 1,  Agriculture  is  made 
one  of  four  optional  subjects  in  examinations  for  first-grade 
teachers'  certificates.     This  will  probably  be  amended  later,  mak- 


SUMMARY  OF  STATE  LEGISLATION  35 

ing  agriculture  one  of  the  required  subjects.  State  aid  is  to  be 
given  to  rural  and  graded  schools.  These  are  of  two  classes, 
but  among  the  requirements  for  both  classes  are  courses  in 
domestic  science,  manual  training,  and  elementary  agriculture. 
Provision  is  made  for  the  establishment  of  county  agricultural 
and  training  schools.     "Each  of  said  schools  shall  receive  state 

aid  in  the  sum  of  $2,500 Not  more  than  five  schools 

shall  be  aided  the  first  year  nor  more  than  five  be  added  every 
two  years  thereafter."  A  state  agricultural  and  training  board 
is  also  created.  This  board  "shall  consist  of  the  president  of  the 
state  agricultural  college,  the  state  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, and  three  practical  farmers,  who  shall  be  appointed 
by  the  governor  of  the  state. 

Ohio. — An  act  to  provide  for  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in 
the  common  schools  became  a  law  in  191 1,  but  does  not  apply 
to  city  school  districts  of  the  state.  The  act  requires  "that  the 
state  be  divided  into  four  agricultural  districts  to  be  mapped 
out,  located,  and  defined  by  the  commissioner  of  common  schools. 
....  The  state  commissioner  shall  also  superintend  all  such 
agricultural  education  designated  in  this  act  and  shall  appoint 
in  each  agricultural  district  a  person  known  as  district  super- 
visor of  agriculture."  Among  the  duties  of  this  officer  are 
visiting  and  co-operating  with  the  several  boards  of  education 
in  his  district  in  planning  such  a  course  of  study  in  agriculture 
as  they  may  think  best  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  people  of  the 
respective  school  districts ;  visiting  the  county  teachers'  institute 
in  every  county  in  his  district,  and  giving  instruction  in  agri- 
culture to  the  teachers  of  the  several  schools  designated  in  this 
act ;  co-operating  with  the  state  board  of  agriculture,  and  giving 
the  state  such  time  as  may  be  necessary  to  lecture  on  agricultural 
subjects  as  are  related  to  teaching  in  the  common  schools;  en- 
couraging county  agricultural  societies  in  each  county  of  his 
district  to  establish  school  children's  agricultural  exhibits  at 
each  annual  county  fair.  The  sections  of  the  political  code 
relating  to  teachers'  examinations  is  amended  so  as  to  include 
"on  and  after  September  i,  1912,  elementary  agriculture." 


36        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Pennsylvania. — The  new  school  code  provides  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  an  expert  assistant  in  agriculture  for  the  state 
department  of  education  and  makes  agricultural  education  a 
part  of  the  objects  to  be  promoted  by  the  state  board  of  education. 

Texas. — State  aid  to  the  amount  of  from  $500  to  $2,000 
is  given  for  one  year  to  high  schools  providing  approved  in- 
struction in  agriculture. 

Utah. — Agriculture  is  made  a  part  of  the  course  of  study 
prepared  by  the  state  office  of  education  for  accredited  high 
schools. 

Vermont. — The  state  department  of  education  has  issued  a 
Manual  of  Agriculture  for  the  Public  Schools  of.  Vermont  (35). 

Washington. — Elementary  agriculture  is  made  an  optional 
subject  in  the  eighth  grade  of  the  public  schools  of  the  state. 

Wisconsin. — An  act  passed  in  191 1  makes  available  to  each 
school  "maintaining  a  department  of  manual  training,  or  do- 
mestic economy  or  agriculture,  or  any  or  all  of  these  departments 
one-half  the  amount  actually  expended  for  instruction  in  such 
department,  not,  however,  to  exceed  $350  for  each  department 
above  named  which  shall  have  been  maintained  in  connection 
with  the  high  school  and  the  three  upper  grades  below  the  high 
school,  but  not  to  exceed  $250  for  each  department  named 
maintained  only  in  connection  with  the  high  school."  It  is 
possible  under  this  act  for  a  school  district  maintaining  courses 
in  these  three  subjects  to  receive  $1,050  per  year  from  the  state. 
No  state  aid  may  be  given  to  any  school  for  instruction  in 
agriculture,  domestic  economy,  manual  training,  or  industrial 
branches  unless  the  salary  of  every  teacher  giving  instruction 
in  such  subjects  shall  receive  at  least  $60  per  month. 

The  maximum  state  aid  to  any  county  school  of  agriculture 
and  domestic  economy  is  raised  from  $4,000  per  annum  to  $6,000- 
$8,000  per  annum,  depending  upon  average  daily  attendance. 
The  Stout  Institute  located  at  Menomonie  is  to  receive  state 
support,  $30,000  for  the  current  year  and  $55,000  per  annum 
thereafter. 


SUMMARY  OF  STATE  LEGISLATION 


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CHAPTER  V 

AGRICULTURAL   COLLEGES,   INCLUDING   EXTENSION   WORK, 

DEPARTMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION,  AND 

SUMMER  SCHOOLS  FOR  TEACHERS 

Of  the  many  agencies  now  promoting  agricultural  education 
in  elementary  and  secondary  schools  the  most  important  are  the 
state  agricultural  colleges,  for  they  are  the  "only  teaching  insti- 
tutions that  are  in  possession,  at  first  hand,  of  the  essential  facts 
of  rational  agriculture."  Until  recently  they  have  been  too  busy 
perfecting  their  own  organization,  and  too  greatly  occupied  in 
developing  and  promoting  the  scientific  aspects  of  agriculture  to 
give  much  attention  to  outside  educational  matters.  It  is  difficult 
to  determine  just  when  the  agricultural  colleges  began  to  take  an 
active  interest  in  the  public  schools.     Dean  L.  H.  Bailey  says: 

More  than  any  other  institutions  they  stand  for  democracy  and  native- 
ness  of  education,  for  their  purpose  is  nothing  less  than  to  reach  the  last 
man  on  the  last  farm  by  means  of  the  very  things  by  which  that  man  lives 

(36,  p.  40). 

This  idea  of  bringfing  the  college  to  the  people  found  its  first 
expression  in  various  sorts  of  extension  work  dealing  with  the 
farmers  directly.  Now  this  work  is  well  organized  and  is  doing 
great  service.  Through  farmers'  institutes,  farmers'  conventions, 
farmers'  excursions  to  the  college,  instruction  trains,  demonstra- 
tion farms,  and  other  means,  the  man  on  the  farm  is  having  the 
college  brought  to  him.  These  efforts  of  the  colleges  are  now 
appreciated ;  so  much  in  fact,  that  it  is  often  difficult  for  a  college 
to  meet  the  demands  for  this  kind  of  outside  instruction.  But 
the  farmer  has  not  always  had  this  friendly  attitude.  He  was 
slow  to  recognize  the  value  of  what  he  called  "book  farming." 
Perhaps  it  was  in  these  early  days  of  agricultural  extension  that 
some  of  those  in  charge  thought  it  worth  while  to  give  some 
attention  to  the  coming  generation  of  farmers,  to  the  children  in 
the  public  schools. 

38 


AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES  AND  EXTENSION  WORK       39 

Doubtless  many  individuals  connected  with  agricultural  col- 
leges had  put  this  idea  into  practice  and  had  helped  to  introduce 
agricultural  subjects  in  some  of  the  public  schools  long  before 
any  college  took  official  notice  of  this  means  of  extension.  The 
first  college  to  take  this  matter  up  was  the  Agricultural  College 
of  Cornell  University.  Reference  has  already  been  made  to 
this  work  under  the  Nixon  law  of  1897.^  It  assumed  consider- 
able importance  at  once.  The  report  of  1898  concerning  this 
work  says : 

Thirty  thousand  teachers  are  enrolled  on  our  lists  and  have  received 
leaflets,  and  many  have  attended  lectures  explaining  the  methods  of  pre- 
senting nature-study  work  in  the  schools.  Sixteen  thousand  children  have 
received  those  leaflets  which  are  especially  adapted  to  their  needs  (24,  p. 
1611). 

This  work  is  administered  by  a  department  of  the  college 
known  as  the  Nature-Study  Bureau  and  consists  of  publications, 
correspondence,  organization  of  boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  and  lec- 
tures and  demonstrations  for  teachers.  Other  agricultural  col- 
leges soon  took  up  similar  work  in  their  respective  states  until 
now  nearly  all  are  doing  more  or  less  extension  work  among  the 
public  schools.  At  present  agricultural  colleges  are  assisting 
agricultural  education  in  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools 
(a)  by  various  extension  methods,  (b)  by  organizing  depart- 
ments of  agricultural  education,  and  (c)  by  conducting  summer 
schools  for  teachers. 

Extension  methods  vary  somewhat  in  different  states.  This 
is  probably  due  to  differences  in  local  conditions,  state  support, 
and  policies  of  the  colleges  themselves.  Usually  each  college 
develops  one  particular  method  of  reaching  the  schools  although 
it  may  use  several.  Several  colleges  follow  the  Cornell  plan 
(Z7>  38)  of  regular  publications  for  teachers  and  pupils,  for 
example,  the  agricultural  colleges  of  California  (39),  Kansas 
(40),  Ohio  (41),  New  Hampshire  (42),  Rhode  Island  (43), 
and  West  Virginia  (44).  Purdue  University,  Indiana,  and 
Pennsylvania    State    College   published    regularly    for   a   while 

'  Chap,  iii,  p.  25. 


40        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

leaflets  on  nature-study.  Others  publish  occasional  bulletins  on 
various  phases  of  public-school  agriculture,  for  example,  the  agri- 
cultural colleges  of  Massachusetts  (45,  46,  47,  48),  Illinois  (49), 
Minnesota  (53),  Missouri  (50),  Pennsylvania  (51),  Tennessee 
(52),  and  California  (54,  55).  Material  designed  to  aid 
teachers  is  sometimes  prepared  by  faculty  members  of  an  agri- 
cultural college,  for  example,  of  the  agricultural  colleges  of 
California  (56),  Illinois  (58),  and  Michigan  (57),  to  be  pub- 
lished by  the  state  department  of  education  or  by  some  school 
magazine. 

These  extension  publications  are  distributed  free  of  charge 
and  often  large  editions  have  to  be  reprinted  to  meet  the 
demand.  The  extension  bulletin  of  Ohio  State  Agricultural 
College  (41),  for  example,  is  printed  in  editions  of  from 
lOjCXX)  to  20,000.  The  mailing-list  is  made  up  anew  each  year 
from  responses  to  notices  that  names  will  be  dropped  from 
the  mailing-list  unless  requests  are  renewed.  Pupils  of  the 
public  schools  are  expected  to  carry  on  some  work  suggested 
by  the  college  and  report  upon  this  work  in  order  to  receive 
the  bulletin  regularly.  In  this  way  the  extension  department 
is  kept  in  close  touch  with  the  teachers  and  pupils  of  the 
state.  The  bulletin  serves  several  purposes :  it  is  a  means  of  com- 
munication between  the  college  and  the  schools ;  it  presents  vari- 
ous phases  of  agriculture  of  interest  to  the  pupils;  it  assists  in 
organizing  agricultural  clubs  among  the  public-school  children; 
it  is  the  organ  for  promoting  interest  in  rural-school  improve- 
ment, such  as  consolidation  of  rural  schools  and  beautifying 
school  grounds. 

Each  agricultural  college  has  more  or  less  correspondence 
among  teachers  and  pupils  but  some  colleges  have  encouraged  it 
and  made  it  a  feature  of  their  extension  work.  This  method  has 
the  advantage  that  comes  from  establishing  a  sort  of  personal 
relation  between  the  college  and  the  individual.  But  the  work 
involved  in  a  correspondence  dealing  with  several  thousand  indi- 
viduals is  enormous  and  almost  impossible  for  an  agricultural 


AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES  AND  EXTENSION  WORK      41 

college,  were  personal  answers  given  to  each  letter.  A  regular 
publication  is  necessary  to  outline  and  suggest  work  to  be  re- 
ported upon.  The  correspondence  is  really  one-sided,  for  answers 
to  individual  letters  may  be  given  in  the  next  publication  or  in  cir- 
cular letters.  Only  a  small  percentage  requires  personal  answers. 
The  office  work  is  thus  reduced  to  filing  and  checking  reports  and 
preparing  mailing-lists.  The  most  extensive  work  of  this  kind 
has  been  carried  on  by  Cornell  University.  "Uncle  John,"  who 
is  supposed  to  read  the  letters,  is  more  widely  known  and  is  more 
popular  among  the  young  people  of  New  York  rural  communities 
than  any  other  member  of  the  university.  This  method  is  also 
used  by  the  agricultural  colleges  of  Ohio  and  Rhode  Island.  The 
agricultural  colleges  of  Florida,  Kansas,  and  Pennsylvania  (59) 
conduct  correspondence  courses  in  agriculture  for  teachers. 

The  most  successful  form  of  agricultural  extension  among 
public-school  children  has  been  agricultural  clubs  (60,  61).- 
They  are  now  organized  in  nearly  every  state  and  are  not  only  a 
means  of  imparting  a  knowledge  of  agriculture  to  their  members, 
but  have  a  wholesome  reaction  on  the  communities  in  whicli 
they  are  organized.  The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  work  of 
boys'  clubs  of  Louisiana: 

This  year,  1909,  we  have  about  2,000  boys  in  our  agricultural  clubs. 
Next  year  we  expect  to  have  10,000.  I  shall  devote  all  of  December,  Jan- 
uary, and  February  to  the  organization  of  these  clubs  in  every  parish  in 
Louisiana.  The  corn  crop  in  Louisiana  this  year  exceeds  in  yield  by  50 
per  cent  the  crop  of  1908,  and  it  is  generally  admitted  that  a  large  part  of 
the  increase  is  due  to  the  interest  created  in  corn  during  the  last  two  years 
by  the  boys  that  are  in  the  boys'  clubs.  The  best  corn  show  ever  held  in 
Louisiana  was  that  of  the  boys'  clubs  at  the  State  Fair  at  Shreveport  the 
first  days  of  this  month.' 

The  agricultural  colleges  of  all  the  southern  states  are  active 
in  their  co-operation  with  the  government  demonstration  work 
among  boys.  The  most  complete  state  organization  of  boys'  and 
girls'  clubs  is  in  Nebraska  (60).     Here  the  State  Agricultural 

'Boys'  agricultural  clubs  are  fully  discussed  in  chap.  xii. 

'From  a  letter  of  Professor  V.  L.  Roy,  Department  of  Agricultural  Education,  State 
Agricultural  College  of  Louisiana. 


42        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

College  and  the  State  Department  of  Education  work  together. 
The  organization  consists  of  a  state  association,  and  county  and 
local  or  district  associations.  The  central  or  state  association 
meets  once  a  year  and  is  composed  of  delegates  from  county 
associations. 

A  special  course  in  agriculture  and  domestic  science  for  boys  and  girls 
will  be  given  at  the  State  University  Farm,  beginning  Monday,  January  17, 
and  ending  Friday,  January  21,  1900.  This  course  is  planned  for  the  dele- 
grates  from  each  county  of  boys'  and  girls'  agricultural  and  domestic  science 
associations.  Special  arrangements  have  been  made  with  the  professors  at 
the  University  College  of  Agriculture  to  give  a  course  of  instruction  last- 
ing five  days The  laboratories  at  the  Agricultural  College  will  be  at 

the  disposal  of  the  delegates  from  the  different  counties  during  this  week 
and  professors  from  the  college  will  give  the  instruction.  The  course  is 
filled  with  interesting  and  instructive  lectures  and  demonstrations   (60,  p.  1 1 ) . 

The  agricultural  colleges  reach  the  public  schools  in  various 
other  ways.  The  extension  department  of  Ohio  State  Agri- 
cultural College  gives  much  of  its  attention  to  rural  schools. 
The  superintendent  of  agricultural  extension  in  this  institution 
believes  that  the  most  important  work  of  his  department  lies  in 
improving  the  rural  schools,  not  only  by  helping  to  introduce 
agriculture,  but  by  interesting  the  patrons  in  consolidating  small 
district  schools,  in  making  other  improvements,  and  by  encoura- 
ging the  teachers  to  adjust  their  school  work  to  fit  the  needs  of 
the  communities  in  which  they  live.  The  Mississippi  State  Agri- 
cultural College  g^ves  a  short  course  of  one  week  each  winter 
in  the  county  agricultural  high  school.  Many  colleges  send  rep- 
resentatives to  address  teachers'  institutes  and  other  teachers* 
meetings.  They  also  furnish  judges  for  boys'  corn  shows,  and 
com  and  stock- judging  contests. 

The  early  extension  work  of  agricultural  colleges  among  the 
public  schools  was  intended  to  awaken  an  interest  in  agricultural 
affairs.  It  was  mainly  propaganda  for  arousing  a  favorable 
sentiment  toward  the  subject.  The  more  recent  work  has  had  for 
its  aim  the  actual  introduction  of  certain  phases  of  agriculture 
into  the  schools,  and  to  render  assistance  to  teachers  who  wish 


AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES  AND  EXTENSION  WORK      43 

to  teach  the  subject.  The  demand  on  many  colleges  for  this  kind 
of  work  has  become  too  great  to  be  properly  met  by  the  regular 
extension  departments.  To  meet  this  situation  special  depart- 
ments are  being  organized.  These  are  usually  known  as  depart- 
ments of  agricultural  education.  The  following  tabulation 
shows  the  organization  of  these  departments  up  to  date: 


State 

Year 

State 

Year 

Alabatna 

1909 
1909 
191 1 
1909 
\  1905 
(  1909 
1908 
19II 
1909 
191 1 
1908 
1907 
19II 

Missouri 

1909 
1909 
1909 
1910 
1909 

California 

Nebraska 

Georgia 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

1909 
1909 
191 1 
1911 
19H 
1911 
1909 

Indiana 

Pennsylvania 

Iowa 

Rhode  Island 

Utah 

Louisiana 

Kansas 

Washington 

Michigan 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin     

Massachusetts 

Mississippi 

The  agricultural  colleges  of  Arkansas,  Delaware,  Maine, 
Massachusetts,  North  Dakota,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  South 
Dakota,  Vermont,  Washington,  and  Wisconsin  give  courses 
in  education  to  their  students  who  expect  to  become  teachers. 
The  Agricultural  College  of  Tennessee  added  a  department  of 
agricultural  education  temporarily  in  1908  for  one  year  and 
expects  to  re-establish  it.  A  number  of  other  colleges  have  signi- 
fied their  intention  to  establish  departments  of  agricultural  edu- 
cation as  soon  as  practicable. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  summary  that  most  of  these 
new  departments  began  their  work  in  1908  and  1909.  This  is 
probably  due,  at  least  in  part,  to  a  provision  of  the  Nelson  amend- 
ment of  1908  (26,  36,  p.  5)  whereby  "said  colleges  may  use  a 
portion  of  this  money  (referring  to  additional  appropriation) 
for  providing  courses  for  special  preparation  of  instructors  for 
teaching  the  elements  of  agriculture  and  mechanic  arts." 

Massachusetts  in  1907  made  a  special  appropriation  of  $5,000 
for  this  work  (36,  p.  41 ).     In  addition  to  the  regular  instruction 


44        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

given  during  the  school  year  and  summer  school  for  teachers, 
the  department  conducted,  in  1908,  1909,  and  1910,  conferences 
on  agricultural  education  (46).  At  the  conference  of  1909,  a 
committee  appointed  in  1908  made  a  report  outlining  a  series  of 
exercises  "of  experimental  character  that  should  serve  as  material 
for  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  the  common  schools"  (45). 
The  department  has  extended  its  work  to  include  courses  of  in- 
struction during  the  college  year  to  undergraduates  expecting  to 
teach;  lectures  before  teachers'  and  farmers'  meetings;  summer- 
school  instruction  to  teachers  of  elementary  agriculture  and 
school  gardening;  co-operative  work  with  the  North  Adams 
State  Normal  School;  organizing  boys'  and  girls'  agricultural 
clubs;  conducting  school  gardens  on  college  campus  for  the 
school  children  of  Amherst. 

The  departments  of  agricultural  education  in  other  colleges 
are  just  getting  under  way,  and  it  is  therefore  not  possible  at 
this  time  to  give  any  report  of  their  work  beyond  a  few  brief 
statements.  Boys'  clubs  and  teachers'  institutes  are  receiving 
special  attention  in  several  states.  In  Missouri  the  schools  of 
the  county  in  which  the  University  of  Missouri  is  located  are 
taking  up  the  study  of  agriculture  under  the  direction  of  the 
professor  of  agricultural  education  who  visits  the  schools  with 
the  county  superintendent,  gives  instruction  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  and  makes  suggestions  to  the  teachers  for  carrying 
on  the  work.  In  1910-11  w'ork  in  thirteen  of  these  "demonstra- 
tion schools"  was  conducted,  and  about  fifty  others  were  reached 
by  correspondence.  The  University  of  Illinois  is  pursuing  a  sim- 
ilar plan.  In  Indiana  the  department  was  established  especially 
to  enable  the  students  of  Purdue  University  to  comply  with  the 
state  law  requiring  teachers  in  the  public  schools  to  have  some  pro- 
fessional training.  In  the  University  of  California  the  depart- 
ment of  agricultural  education  is  especially  well  organized,  cover- 
ing the  following  lines  of  work  :  instruction  to  teachers  during  the 
regular  and  summer  sessions ;  publication  of  circulars  on  school 
gardening,    tree-growing,    high-school    agriculture,    elementary 


AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES  AND  EXTENSION  WORK      45 

agriculture,  etc. ;  organizing  and  conducting  school  garden  work 
in  oity  and  rural  schools ;  conducting  seed  exchange  with  schools 
interested  in  tree-growing  and  gardening;  conducting  organiza- 
tions for  the  encouragement  of  nature-study;  visiting,  super- 
vising, and  teaching  in  the  public  schools ;  assisting  at  teachers' 
meetings;  organizing  excursions  of  teachers  to  university  sta- 
tions; organizing  boys'  and  girls'  clubs  and  publishing  a  paj>er 
to  unify  this  work;  assisting  with  the  demonstration  train;  cor- 
respondence with  superintendents,  principals,  and  teachers,  and 
others  interested  in  educational  work.  Various  specialists  of 
Kansas  Agricultural  College,  under  the  direction  of  the  depart- 
ment of  agricultural  education,  have  prepared  a  series  of  six 
agricultural  primers.  These  have  been  placed  in  the  hands  of 
each  teacher  of  the  state,  and  have  been  used  as  a  text  in  all 
the  normal  institutes  during  the  summer  of  191 1.  In  general, 
these  new  departments  seem  to  regard  the  development  of  agri- 
culture in  high  schools  as  an  important  part  of  their  work. 
Mention  should  be  made  in  this  connection  of  the  co-operation  of 
the  College  of  Agriculture  of  Cornell  University  and  Teachers 
College  of  Columbia  University  for  the  training  of  students  for 
special  work  as  teachers  of  agriculture  in  high  schools  and  normal 
schools.  "Appropriate  courses  in  agriculture  are  taken  at  Cor- 
nell University  and  the  study  of  educational  problems  at  Teachers 
College"  (36,  pp.  36-37).  The  Pennsylvania  Agricultural  Col- 
lege offers  a  special  course  of  one  year  for  graduates  of  normal 
schools  and  colleges  who  expect  to  teach  in  the  public  schools. 
The  department  of  agricultural  education  is  also  giving  instruc- 
tion by  correspondence  to  a  large  number  of  teachers.  The 
University  of  Wisconsin  is  making  special  effort  to  prepare 
teachers  for  work  in  secondaiy  agriculture  in  the  public  schools. 
One  course  of  study  leads  to  the  B.S.  degree  in  agriculture,  and 
to  a  university  teachers'  certificate  which  requires  a  certain 
amount  of  work  to  be  done  in  education;  a  second  leads  to  the 
degree  of  A.B.  with  a  minor  in  agriculture;  a  third  leads  to 
the  degree  of  A.B.  with  a  major  in  manual  arts  and  a  minor  in 


46        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

agriculture;  a  fourth  leads  to  the  degree  of  B.S.  in  the  college 
of  agriculture  with  a  minor  in  manual  arts  or  physical  or  bio- 
logical science. 

The  number  of  agricultural  colleges  giving  summer  courses 
for  the  benefit  of  teachers  is  increasing  rapidly.  During  the 
year  191 1  courses  were  given  in  the  agricultural  colleges  of 
the  following  states :  Alabama,  California,  Connecticut,  Georgia, 
Illinois,  Kansas,  Massachusetts,  Minnesota,  Mississippi,  Missouri, 
New  Jersey,  New  York,  North  Carolina,  North  Dakota,  Ohio, 
Oklahoma,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island,  Tennessee, 
Utah,  Vermont,  Washington,  West  Virginia,  Wisconsin,  Wyo- 
ming, and  perhaps  others.  These  courses  last  from  three  to  eight 
weeks  and  are  well  attended.  The  indications  are  that  the 
attendance  and  interest  will  increase  and  that  summer  schools  of 
agricultural  colleges  will  become  a  considerable  factor  in  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  agricultural  education. 


CHAPTER  VI 
STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS 

It  is  the  business  of  state  normal  schools  not  only  to  train 
teachers  but  also,  as  far  as  conditions  permit,  to  find  out  by  ex- 
periment in  practice  schools,  what  to  teach  and  how  to  teach  it. 
When  both  aspects  of  the  work  of  these  schools  are  considered, 
the  important  relation  which  they  bear  to  agricultural  education, 
particularly  in  elementary  schools,  becomes  apparent.  The  prob- 
lem of  the  normal  school  in  this  matter  is  twofold :  (a)  to  meet 
the  rapidly  growing  demand  for  teachers  who  are  able  to  give 
satisfactory  instruction  in  elementary  agriculture,  and  (&)  to 
reduce  the  subject  to  a  proper  pedagogical  basis,  in  other  words, 
to  determine  what  phases  of  this  great  subject  may  be  undertaken 
in  the  elementary  schools  under  average  school  conditions  both 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  child  and  of  the  teacher. 

The  following  is  a  brief  summary  of  the  efforts  of  the  state 
normal  schools  to  find  a  solution  of  this  twofold  problem.  The 
data  have  been  gathered  from  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  of 
the  one  hundred  and  forty-five  schools  now  actively  engaged  in 
training  teachers.^ 

When  the  diverse  social,  educational,  and  industrial  interests 
of  the  country  as  a  whole  are  considered  it  is  to  be  expected  that 
these  differences  will  be  reflected  in  the  types  of  instruction  given 
in  the  various  normal  schools.  To  these  differences  brought 
about  by  conditions  more  or  less  local  are  to  be  added  those  due 
to  tradition.  The  older  schools  are  usually  less  elastic  and  adapt- 
able than  the  newer  ones.  Bailey  regards  the  latter  fact  as  a 
very  serious  obstacle  in  the  way  of  a  general  introduction  of 
agriculture  into  these  schools.  He  says,  "One  cannot  look  to 
all  the  existing  normal  schools  in  the  older  states,  or  even  to  any 

'  In  1910  the  nine  state  nonnal  schools  of  Oregon  were  closed,  owing  to  lack  of  financial 
support  from  the  state. 

47 


48        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

considerable  part  of  them,  for  the  training  of  teachers  for  this 
kind  of  work"  (36).  This  statement  must  be  qualified  for  there 
are  many  exceptions.  For  example,  the  Johnson  State  Normal 
School  of  Vermont  has  been  offering  courses  in  agriculture  for 
over  eight  years,  while  the  one  at  Laramie,  Wyoming,  recently 
established,  does  not  give  courses  in  agriculture  but  prepares  its 
graduates  to  teach  in  cities. 

The  number  of  graduates  of  state  normal  schools  that  teach 
in  agricultural  communities  varies  exceedingly  not  only  in 
different  states  but  among  the  schools  of  a  single  state.  Re- 
ports from  seventy-six  show  that  twenty-eight  have  from  60 
to  100  per  cent  of  their  graduates  going  into  schools  of  rural 
communities;  twenty-seven  have  from  20  to  50  per  cent;  and 
twenty-one  have  from  i  to  10  per  cent.  Of  the  twenty-eight 
having  from  60  to  100  per  cent  of  their  graduates  teaching  in 
rural  communities,  twenty  are  offering  instruction  in  agriculture 
and  fifteen  require  it;  of  those  having  from  20  to  50  per  cent, 
twenty  offer  instruction  in  agriculture  and  nine  require  it;  of 
those  having  from  i  to  10  per  cent,  eleven  offer  agriculture  and 
three  require  it.  If  this  proportion  should  apply  to  all  the  schools 
it  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  number  of  graduates  of  normal 
schools  going  into  agricultural  communities  is  quite  large,  per- 
haps larger  than  generally  supposed.  It  indicates  also  a  tendency 
of  the  schools  to  adapt  their  work,  at  least  to  the  extent  of  intro- 
ducing agriculture,  to  the  needs  of  the  communities  where  their 
graduates  teach.  This  estimate  is  only  approximate  and  only 
inferences  may  be  drawn  from  it.  It  does  not  take  into  con- 
sideration the  large  number  of  students  who  take  a  portion  of  the 
course  and  who  for  the  most  part  go  into  the  country  to  teach. 
One  normal-school  president  says:  "There  are  very  few  of  our 
graduates  who  teach  in  rural  schools,  but  there  are  multitudes  of 
our  undergraduates  who  do  so."  This  statement  suggests  an- 
other phase  of  the  problem  of  normal-school  instruction  which 
has  received  little  or  no  attention,  viz.,  what  recognition  in  the 
course  of  study  or  character  of  instruction  should  be  given  to  the 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  49 

fact  that  so  many  who  attend  the  normal  school  for  part  of  the 
course  drop  out  and  become  teachers  in  rural  schools?  For 
example,  in  the  school  just  referred  to,  the  instruction  is  evidently 
adjusted  to  meet  the  needs  of  students  who  expect  to  teach  in 
city  schools.  No  agriculture  is  taught  although  "multitudes 
of  the  undergraduates"  become  teachers  in  rural  schools,  and  in 
the  state  itself  agriculture  is  the  chief  industry. 

The  development  of  agricultural  instruction  in  state  normal 
schools  has  on  the  whole  kept  pace  with  the  growth  of  the  general 
interest  in  the  subject.  It  is  hard  to  say  just  when  this  subject 
was  first  taken  up.  Probably  the  first  institution  to  begin  this 
work  under  the  name  of  agriculture  was  the  Rock  Hill  State 
Normal  School  of  South  Carolina,  which  offered  courses  in  agri- 
culture as  early  as  1895.  The  Johnson  State  Normal  School  of 
Vermont  offered  its  first  course  in  agriculture  in  1901,  and  about 
this  time  the  subject  was  introduced  in  some  of  the  state  normal 
schools  of  the  Middle  West  (62). 

In  1906  a  report  on  "Preparation  of  Teachers  to  Give  Instruc- 
tion in  Elementary  Agriculture"  was  prepared  for  the  Joint  Board 
of  the  California  State  Normal  Schools  trustees  (63).  This  re- 
port showed  that  the  normal  schools  of  Minnesota,  North  Dakota, 
Nebraska,  Missouri,  and  South  Carolina  were  attempting  to 
prepare  teachers  to  give  instruction  in  elementary  agriculture; 
that  some  attention  was  being  given  to  the  subject  in  the  normal 
schools  of  Illinois,  Utah,  and  Oklahoma ;  that  nothing  was  being 
done  to  furnish  such  training  in  the  schools  of  Iowa,  Kansas, 
Michigan,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Alabama,  North  Carolina,  or 
New  York,  but  that  several  of  these  schools  were,  however, 
getting  ready  to  undertake  the  work  as  soon  as  possible. 

In  a  study  of  ninety-one  state  normal  schools  reported  to  the 
National  Education  Association  in  1907,  it  was  shown  that 
seventy-five  believed  in  an  instruction  in  agriculture,  and  were 
either  giving  it  in  some  form  or  desired  to  do  so.  Sixty-one  of 
this  number  were  either  offering  courses  or  had  made  plans  for 
such  courses  for  the  following  year.    Seven  of  these  were  giving 


50        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

only  a  little  agriculture  in  connection  with  other  science  courses. 
Eight  were  doing  still  more  in  connection  with  school  gardens 
and  were  planning  to  extend  the  work.  The  remaining  forty- 
six  were  giving  definiite  courses  in  agriculture   (64). 

During  1909-10  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  state  normal 
schools,  eighty-seven  were  giving  some  instruction  in  agriculture. 
In  fifty-two  of  those  offering  courses,  twenty-two  made  it 
elective  and  thirty  required  it.  Of  those  not  giving  instruction 
in  agriculture,  thirty-seven  gave  it  incidentally  in  connection  with 
botany,  nature-study,  or  some  other  course  in  science,  and  nearly 
all  those  giving  courses  in  agriculture  also  gave  some  attention 
to  the  subject  in  other  science  work,  particularly  in  botany  and 
nature-study. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  normal  schools  are  rapidly 
introducing  agriculture.  The  number  of  schools  offering  such 
courses  has  increased  from  about  20  per  cent  in  1906  to  more 
than  50  per  cent  in  1909.  Indeed,  the  demand  for  well-qualified 
instructors  in  agriculture  for  normal  schools  exceeds  the  supply. 
One  normal-school  president  says  that  he  tried  for  over  one  year 
to  secure  a  competent  instructor.  Davenport  says :  "The  call  is 
sharp  from  the  normal  schools  of  the  Middle  West  which  have 
this  year  (1909)  taken  some  of  the  best  trained  and  most 
promising  teachers  of  this  class"  (65,  p.  144).  The  call  is  not 
alone  from  the  Middle  West  but  the  East  as  well.  During  the 
present  school  year  one  of  the  normal  schools  of  the  Atlantic 
Coast  states  secured  a  teacher  who,  at  the  time  of  his  appointment, 
was  professor  of  agricultural  education  in  an  agricultural  college 
of  the  Middle  West. 

Letters  from  presidents  and  others  connected  with  normal 
schools  not  now  (1910)  offering  agricultural  instruction  indicate 
that  in  many  of  these  schools  plans  are  under  way  to  introduce  the 
subject  as  soon  as  possible.  Included  in  this  number  are  the 
normal  schools  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  none  of  which 
now  (1910)  offers  such  instruction  except  incidentally  with 
nature-study  and  other  subjects. 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  51 

The  character  of  the  work  in  agriculture  varies  much  in 
different  schools.  But  there  is  one  feature  of  the  instruction 
that  is  common  to  all,  viz.,  evidence  of  the  newness  of  the 
subject  and  of  the  fact  that  it  is  in  an  experimental  stage.  In 
some  schools  the  work  in  agriculture  is  only  in  name,  much 
better  instruction  being  given  in  other  schools  in  courses  in 
nature-study. 

The  time  given  in  the  course  of  study  varies  from  ten  weeks 
to  two  full  years,  the  average  being  less  than  one  year.  One 
interesting  reaction  following  the  demands  for  agricultural  in- 
struction is  to  be  found  in  the  readjustment  in  science  courses, 
especially  in  the  biological  sciences.  The  title  agricultural  botany 
and  agricultural  zoology  frequently  occurs  in  courses  of  study. 
One  fails  to  find  in  some  of  these,  however,  justification  for 
the  new  titles,  for  the  instruction  remains  much  the  same, 
with  emphasis  on  morphology.  The  attitude  of  certain  teach- 
ers of  biology  toward  their  subject  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
following  extract  of  a  letter  received  from  a  member  of  the 
faculty  of  a  large  state  normal  school.  "I  obtained  over  one 
dozen  kinds  of  water  animals  one  day  from  a  pool  when  the 
science  (biology)  teacher  said  he  saw  none  in  it.  He  was  send- 
ing to  New  York  City  for  crayfish  when  a  brook  near  the  building 
was  full  of  them.  The  boys  (in  training  school)  had  made  nets 
and  would  have  been  glad  to  have  caught  the  animals  for  him." 
Perhaps  the  influence  of  such  a  teacher  was  partly  responsible 
for  the  ignorance  of  a  practice  teacher  (a  senior)  who  stood  in 
a  bed  of  marigolds  and  asked  if  there  were  any  marigolds  in  the 
garden.  The  introduction  of  agriculture  will  no  doubt  have 
much  to  do  in  changing  this  attitude. 

It  will  in  the  end  exert  a  profound  influence  upon  the  teaching  of 
general  science.     There  is  no  manner  of  doubt  that  the  masses  of  people 

are  best  benefited  by  the  teaching  of   science   in   its   applied   form 

Agfriculture  is  evidently  to  be  the  pioneer  in  this  business  of  the  adaptation 
of  science  to  the  common  affairs  of  life  in  the  schools  that  are  attended 
by  the  masses,  and  if  this  is  true  its  incidental  service  may  be  even  greater 
than  its  direct.     In  the  meantime  it  is  vastly  significant  that  the  schools 


52        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

where  teachers  are  made  have  at  last  commenced  to  study  real  life  in  one 
of  its  most  concrete  forms  (6$,  pp.  45-46). 

Normal  schools  have  so  far  been  too  much  occupied  in  pro- 
viding for  instruction  in  agriculture  to  give  much  attention  to 
the  pedagogical  problems  of  the  subject.  These  problems  con- 
cern (a)  the  organization  of  courses  in  the  normal  school  itself, 
and  (b)  methods  of  teaching  the  subject  in  the  public  schools. 
Naturally,  the  former  has  been  the  first  to  receive  attention.  The 
organization  of  work  in  agriculture  has  been  in  two  directions, 
one  in  the  science  work  already  referred  to,  and  the  other  in  the 
purely  agricultural  courses  recently  introduced. 

Special  efforts  of  adjustment  have  affected  nature-study  more 
than  other  science  studies.  Many  believe  that  as  far  as  the  ele- 
mentary schools  are  concerned  agriculture  should  have  the  nature- 
study  aspect,  or  as  some  prefer  to  say,  nature-study  should  have 
an  agricultural  trend;  that  since  nature-study  has  to  do  with 
material  drawn  from  the  child's  immediate  environment,  and 
since  a  large  part  of  this  environment  is  more  or  less  agricultural 
(consisting  of  animals  and  plants  under  control  of  man)  a  good 
course  in  nature-study  forms  an  adequate  preparation  for  a 
teacher  to  give  such  agricultural  instruction  as  will  meet  the 
needs  of  rural  schools,  and  at  the  same  time  enables  a  teacher  to 
make  use  of  school  gardening  and  other  practical  or  economic 
phases  of  the  subject  in  city  schools  (66). 

The  particular  direction  in  which  nature-study  has  been  most 
modified  in  its  readjustment  has  been  in  the  school  garden  (67). 
It  has  been  found  that  the  school  garden  may  serve  as  a  very 
effectual  means  of  unifying  most  all  nature-study  work.  Chil- 
dren are  not  only  able  to  "grow  things"  in  gardens,  but  in  doing 
this  work  successfully  have  had  to  solve  many  of  the  problems 
that  are  fundamental  to  agriculture.  The  character  of  the  soil, 
the  conservation  of  water  by  cultivation,  the  protection  of  plants 
from  insect  and  other  enemies,  and  many  other  factors  of  suc- 
cessful plant-growing  are  encountered.  Many  normal  schools 
have  regarded  this  readjustment  of  nature-study  and  other  sci- 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  53 

ence  work  as  sufficient  to  meet  the  demands  for  agricultural 
instruction  in  the  training  of  elementary  teachers,  and  are  work- 
ing with  this  end  in  view.  Some  of  the  normal  schools  of  Cali- 
fornia, Illinois,  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  and  other  states,  and 
many  of  those  schools  now  offering  courses  in  agriculture,  have 
made  substantial  progress  in  the  readjustment  of  science  work. 
Instruction  in  agriculture  as  a  separate  subject  in  normal 
schools  is  now  in  an  experimental  stage.  Yet  certain  work  and 
methods  seem  to  have  proved  successful.  The  first  publication 
of  work  adapted  to  normal  schools  was  in  the  form  of  a  textbook 
based  on  teaching  experience  in  the  Kirksville  (Mo.)  State 
Normal  School  ( 1 76) .  Recently  a  very  concrete  treatment  of  the 
problem  has  appeared  as  a  government  publication.  It  is  an 
account  of  what  is  actually  being  done  and  how  it  is  done  in  a 
typical  normal  school.    The  writer  says  in  his  introduction, 

The  aim  of  the  normal  school  is  to  prepare  young  men  and  women  to 
teach  in  the  elementary  schools  of  the  state.  The  young  people  who  attend 
come  from  farms  or  smaller  towns,  and  when  they  go  out  to  teach  they  are 
called  upon  to  give  instruction  in  what  is  known  as  elementary  agriculture. 
To  meet  this  demand,  a  department  of  agriculture  was  established  four 
years  ago.  The  course  at  first  extended  through  one  term's  work  but  has 
been  lengthened  until  practically  two  full  years  are  now  devoted  to  agri- 
cultural instruction.  The  work  has  attracted  many  young  people,  and  the 
success  with  which  they  have  subsequently  instructed  others  along  these 
lines  indicate  that  the  instruction  has  been  effective.  Not  all  the  problems 
in  teaching  agriculture  have  been  solved  but  it  may  justly  be  claimed  that 
a  few  of  the  more  difficult  of  them  have  been  solved  (68). 

Other  similar  publications  of  successful  practice  which  have  been 
tested  by  the  work  of  students  who  have  become  teachers  will 
contribute  much  toward  the  pedagogical  efficiency  of  the  subject. 
From  the  standpoint  of  methods  of  teaching  the  subject  in 
the  public  school,  little  has  been  done.  A  very  promising  begin- 
ning of  the  study  of  this  question  was  made  at  the  Peru  (Neb.) 
State  Normal  School  in  February,  1909,  when  the  Normal  Agri- 
cultural Society  was  organized.  The  purpose  of  this  society  is 
to  aid  teachers  in  "handling  the  new  subject  of  agriculture  in 


54        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

public  schools  of  the  state."  Those  interested  in  its  organiza- 
tion have  expressed  the  hope  that  "it  will  become  a  pedagogical 
laboratory  for  testing  and  discovering  methods  to  improve  and 
extend  the  teaching  of  agriculture  throughout  the  schools  of 
Nebraska."  The  director  is  the  head  of  the  department  of  agri- 
culture in  the  Peru  Normal  School  and  conducts  for  the  society 
a  column  in  the  Nebraska  Farmer  which  is  to  be  the  official  pub- 
lication of  the  society  (69). 

An  interesting  experiment  limited  to  one  phase  of  agriculture 
is  now  being  conducted  at  the  Western  Illinois  State  Normal 
School  at  Macomb  in  co-operation  with  the  Illinois  State  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station.  A  soil  experiment  field  of  two  and 
one-half  acres  has  been  provided  by  the  normal  school.  The 
school 

as  its  share  of  the  responsibility,  takes  full  charge  of  the  field  operations 
implied  in  the  plans.  Such  co-operation  provides  for  both  scientific  and 
educative  values  in  the  work  and  it  is  proposed  to  make  the  results  as  far 
reaching  as  possible.  Not  alone  to  teachers  and  prospective  teachers  will 
it  be  valuable  but  as  well  to  persons  now  engaged  in  agricultural  practice 
(70). 

A  few  helps  to  teachers  have  been  worked  out  in  normal 
schools  and  published,  for  example,  from  Cape  Girardeau,  Mo. 
(71),  Los  Angeles,  Cal.  (72),  Greeley,  Colo.  (73),  Hays,  Kan. 
(74),  and  Chico,  Cal.  (75).  They  consist  of  discussion  of  agri- 
cultural subjects  suitable  for  public  schools,  and  methods  of 
instruction. 

There  is  one  large  class  of  normal-school  students  already 
mentioned  that  is  not  adequately  provided  for.  This  class  is 
made  up  of  students  who  wish  to  teach  in  rural  schools  and  who 
can  spend  only  a  year  or  part  of  a  year  in  preparation,  and  is  the 
largest  in  states  where  emphasis  is  placed  on  examination  for 
certification.  These  students  attend  primarily  to  prepare  for 
examinations. 

It  has  been  the  custom  in  most  schools  to  provide  for  these 
students  by  offering  short  review  courses.  Often  instruction  in 
elementary  agriculture  and  sometimes  in  manual  training  forms 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  55 

a  part  of  this  work,  and  is  really  the  only  part  that  takes  into 
consideration  the  life  of  the  community  in  which  these  students 
are  to  teach.  These  short  courses  are  generally  regarded  by 
normal-school  teachers  as  unsatisfactory,  both  on  account  of  the 
shortness  of  the  time  given  and  the  irregular  preparation  of  the 
students  themseilves.  Although  the  situation  is  recognized  as  a 
difficult  one  very  little  has  been  done  to  improve  it.  There  are 
several  schools,  however,  that  have  undertaken  to  give  their 
students  of  this  class  some  real  preparation  for  this  work  as 
teachers.  Some  have  arranged  with  local  public-school  authori- 
ties for  a  one-room  rural  school  to  be  used  as  an  observation  or 
practice  school.  Others  have  built  or  have  control  of  a  one-room 
schoolhouse  and  have  endeavored  to  make  it  a  model  of  its  kind 
so  as  to  show  concretely  the  possibilities  of  a  rural  school.  For 
example,  the  Kirksville  (Mo.)  State  Normal  School  has  a  well- 
appointed  single-room  schoolhouse.     It  has  been 

designed  and  constructed  to  show  that  a  rural  school  anjrwhere  can  have  all 
the  conveniences  and  comforts  offered  in  any  city  building.  The  children 
are  transported  in  covered  vehicles  to  and  from  school.  It  is  a  model 
school  so  far  as  it  can  possibly  be  made  such.  It  is  to  exemplify  the  best 
things  which  a  school  board  and  a  good  teacher  with  up-to-date  facilities 
can  do  in  and  for  a  rural  school. 

Special  provision  is  made  for  instruction  in  manual  training, 
elementary  agriculture,  and  home  economics.^ 

Two  somewhat  similar  plans  for  rural  education  should  be 
mentioned  in  this  connection.  Both  of  these  have  the  larger 
possibilities  of  teaching  in  rural  commimities  in  view.  One  is  a 
course  of  two  years  called  "rural  arts"  given  by  the  Harris- 
burg  (Va.)  Normal  and  Industrial  School  for  Women.  The 
course  requires  high-school  graduation  for  admission.  The 
object  is  to 

give  its  students  a  training  of  mind,  heart,  and  hand  which  will  fit  them 
for  efficient  service  in  rural  schools,  and  for  intelligent  and  appreciative 
participation  in  the  life  of  rural  communities.  It  will  not  attempt  to  train 
farmers;  it  cannot  be  expected  to  turn  out  agricultural  experts.     Its  work 

'Bulletin  First  District  Normal  School,  Kirksville,  Mo.,  DC,  No.  i  (1909),  9-16. 


56        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

«  will  be  limited  to  those  phases  of  farm  life  in  which  women  usually,  or 
frequently,  or  may  properly  participate,  and  to  that  portion  of  agricultural 
instruction  which  may  properly  be  given  by  female  teachers  in  elementary 
and  high  schools. 

The  course  includes  besides  some  of  the  regular  normal  courses, 
horticulture,  elementary  agriculture,  rural  sociology,  poultry- 
raising  and  bee  culture,  dairying,  forestry  and  floriculture,  and 
theory  and  practice  in  rural  arts.^  The  other  is  a  course  of  two 
years  known  as  "rural  industrial  education"  given  by  the  Ohio 
State  Normal  College  of  Miami  University.  Its  requirements 
for  admission  are  the  same  as  for  other  college  courses.  This 
course  is  expected  to  meet  the  needs  of  township  superintendents, 
principals,  and  science  teachers  of  high  schools  in  rural  communi- 
ties, and  to  enable  these  teachers  to  adapt  the  work  of  their  high 
schools  more  nearly  to  the  life  of  the  school  communities.  The 
course  includes  education,  school  administration,  rural  sociology, 
agriculture  (two  years),  forestry,  botany,  manual  training,  rural 
education,  methods  of  rural-school  organization,  physical  geog- 
raphy, entomology,  and  physics  of  farm  machiner)\  In  plan- 
ning this  course,  which  is  at  present  a  tentative  one,  the  in- 
fluence of  the  high  school  of  an  agricultural  community  on 
the  elementary  schools  was  carefully  considered.  Most  of  the 
teachers  in  the  elementary  schools  of  these  communities  are 
graduates  of  these  high  schools.  They  seldom  receive  further 
training.  Therefore,  with  a  high  school  organized  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  community,  its  influence  should  thus  extend  to  the 
elementary  schools  through  its  graduates  who  become  teachers 
(76). 

Any  account  of  the  work  of  the  state  normal  schools  in  agri- 
cultural education  would  be  incomplete  without  some  special 
reference  to  the  teachers  themselves  who  are  engaged  in  this 
work.  Many  are  doing  their  work  under  considerable  disad- 
vantage. This  applies  not  only  to  the  fact  that  agriculture  is  a 
new  normal-school  subject  to  be  adapted  to  new  conditions  but 

'Bulletin  Slate  Normal  and  InduslrM  School,  Ilarrisburg,  Va.,  I,  No.  i  (igog),  88-92. 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  57 

also  to  the  fact  that  it  has  been  added  as  an  additional  subject  to 
a  teacher's  already  overcrowded  program.  One  teacher  writes 
that  he  is  offering  agriculture  this  year  for  the  first  time,  but  is 
expected  also  to  teach  physics,  chemistry,  botany,  zoology,  physi- 
ology, geology,  and  physical  geography.  Several  teachers  have 
bought  small  farms  primarily  in  order  that  their  students  might 
have  the  advantage  of  actual  field  experimentation. 

With  the  earnest  body  of  teachers  now  beginning  to  take  up 
the  work  and  with  the  progress  already  made  it  seems  likely  that 
the  demands  for  agricultural  instruction  in  the  training  of  teach- 
ers in  state  normal  schools  will  soon  be  met.  The  real  test  of 
the  value  of  this  training  is  in  the  work  of  the  teacher  who  goes 
out  from  the  schools  and  it  is  now  too  early  to  pass  judgment. 


CHAPTER  VII 

NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION— STATE  AND  OTHER 
TEACHERS'  ASSOCIATIONS 

It  is  said  of  the  National  Education  Association  that  it  "lias 
been,  and  is  now  the  body-guard  of  public-school  instruction  in 
our  country."  While  this  statement  may  not  be  taken  literally,  the 
fact  remains  that  this  Association  is  the  one  educational  organi- 
zation which  is  truly  national  in  character,  embracing  as  it  does 
the  interests  of  all  parts  of  the  country  and  all  phases  of  educa- 
tion. 

It  was  organized  in  Philadelphia  on  August  26,  1857,  under 
the  name  of  the  National  Teachers'  Association  by  a  group  of 
teachers  who  met  in  response  to  a  call  sent  out  the  previous  year 
to  all  the  local  teachers'  associations.  The  call  itself  is  significant, 
for  it  expresses  the  spirit  which  has,  on  the  whole,  been  manifest 
during  the  entire  existence  of  the  Association:  to  teachers  of 
the  United  States  "who  are  willing  to  unite  in  a  general  effort 
to  promote  the  general  welfare  of  our  country  by  concentrating 
the  wisdom  and  power  of  numerous  minds,  and  by  distributing 
among  all  the  accumulated  experiences  of  all"  {j']^. 

The  name  was  changed  in  1870  to  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association  and  in  1907  to  the  one  it  now  bears.  As  it  was 
founded  to  meet  the  demands  of  a  natural  growth,  it  has  never 
departed  from  the  essential  principles  on  which  it  was  founded. 
The  extent  to  which  the  "accumulated  experiences  of  all"  have 
been  "distributed  among  all"  may  be  seen  by  a  reference  to  the 
published  list  of  titles  of  papers  and  discussions  from  1857  to 
1907.  This  list  covers  over  seventy  pages  and  embraces  almost 
every  imaginable  subject  of  educational  interest  (78).  Many 
discussions  are  of  only  passing  importance ;  some  are  but  means 
of  exploiting  favorite  theories;  others  are  real  contributions  to 
educational  thought. 

58 


STATE  AND  OTHER  TEACHERS'  ASSOCIATIONS  59 

Beyond  the  propaganda  which  is  expected  of  any  large 
educational  body  the  most  valuable  work  of  the  Association 
has  been  through  its  committees  which  have  been  appointed 
from  time  to  time  to  investigate  and  report  upon  various  im- 
portant questions  of  general  interest. 

The  Association  being  a  sort  of  clearing-house  for  educa- 
tional ideas,  its  published  Proceedings  provide  a  valuable  source 
of  information  concerning  all  kinds  of  tendencies  and  move- 
ments in  education.  Agricultural  education  has  received  a  share 
of  attention  proportional  to  the  different  stages  of  its  develop- 
ment. The  interest  of  the  Association  in  this  subject  as  re- 
flected in  the  Proceedings  extends  over  four  periods :  the  first 
from  1857  to  1897,  the  second  from  1897  to  1903,  the  third 
from  1903  to  1906,  and  the  fourth  from  1906  to  the  present 
time. 

Agriculture  was  not  considered  as  a  separate  subject  except 
as  referring  to  agricultural  colleges  until  the  latter  part  of  the 
first  period.  Industrial  education,  however,  was  discussed  as 
early  as  1866.  In  1875  a  Department  of  Industrial  Education 
was  formed.  At  this  meeting  the  question :  "Can  Elements  of 
Industrial  Education  Be  Introduced  into  Our  Common  Schools  ?" 
was  discussed  in  a  paper  by  John  D.  Philbrook.  He  said : 
"Science  and  art  with  reference  to  their  special  application  to 
industrial  pursuits  must  be  included  in  the  modern  school  course." 
Drawing,  geometry,  natural  history,  physics,  and  chemistry  were 
mentioned  as  the  branches  which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  indus- 
trial education. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  following  year  (1876)  William  T. 
Harris  in  his  report  as  chairman  of  the  committee  on  "Course  of 
Study  from  Primary  School  to  University"  refers  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  deciding  "the  amount  of  prominence  to  be  given  to 
industrial  branches  in  comparison  with  those  chiefly  productive 
of  theoretical  culture."  He  says  also :  "The  primary  school  has 
been  called  upon  to  fit  for  life."  In  the  course  of  study  reported 
by  the  committee  for  the  district  schools,  topics  relating  to  nature 


6o        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

are  suggested  as  follows:  "Inorganic — arithmetic,  oral  lessons 
in  natural  philosophy;  organic — geography,  oral  lessons  in 
natural  history," 

These  two  references  to  the  early  discussions  of  industrial 
education  are  given  to  show  that  the  need  of  such  instruction 
was  being  considered  at  this  time,  and  from  a  somewhat  general 
viewpoint  which  might  include  agriculture  although  it  was  not 
specifically  mentioned.  The  Department  of  Industrial  Education, 
however,  gave  its  attention  almost  wholly  to  urban  conditions. 
Drawing  and  manual  training  held  prominent  places  in  the  dis- 
cussions of  all  the  meetings.  In  1890  the  name  of  the  Depart- 
ment was  very  properly  changed  to  Industrial  and  Manual 
Training,  and  in  1899  to  Manual  Training. 

In  1893,  at  the  International  Congress  of  Education  held 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Association,  agriculture  had  a  place 
on  the  program  (79)  but  the  paper  was  read  by  a  Russian. 
Perhaps  his  account  of  the  use  of  agriculture  in  the  rural 
schools  as  a  school  subject  had  something  to  do  with  direct- 
ing the  attention  of  the  Association  to  the  rural-school  prob- 
lem. At  any  rate,  at  the  meeting  of  1895  a  committee  of 
twelve  was  appointed  to  investigate  and  report  upon  rural 
schools  as  to  maintenance,  supervision,  supply  of  teachers,  and 
instruction  and  discipline. 

The  report  was  submitted  to  the  meeting  of  1897.  It  con- 
tains a  number  of  suggestions  which  involve  more  or  less  agri- 
cultural instruction  such  as  surface  features  of  the  earth  includ- 
ing soils,  weather,  plant  and  animal  life,  etc.  It  also  emphasizes 
the  need  of  a  course  of  study  "framed  with  direct  reference  to 
actual  conditions  that  prevail  in  country  life  and  in  large  measure 
determine  it.  Among  the  most  important  points  to  be  kept  in 
mind  are  the  following:  (i)  There  is  a  general  lack  of  apprecia- 
tion of  immediate  surroundings;  (2)  there  is  an  almost  total 
lack  of  scientific  skill  in  farm  work;  (3)  in  the  country  there  is 
a  great  dearth  of  social  life."  Under  (2)  certain  phases  of 
mechanics,  manual  training,  biology,  meteorology  and  physics 


STATE  AND  OTHER  TEACHERS'  ASSOCIATIONS  6i 

of  the  atmosphere,  mineralogy,  and  chemistry  were  included. 
Another  portion  of  the  report  is  devoted  to  the  "farm  as  the 
center  of  interest,"  and  a  great  many  things  which  we  now  find 
in  all  textbooks  on  elementary  agriculture  are  mentioned  (80). 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  second  period  (i 897-1 903) 
agriculture  appeared  as  a  topic  for  discussion  at  nearly  every 
meeting.  At  the  meeting  of  1902  five  papers  were  read  as 
follows:  "The  Value  of  a  Large  Agricultural  School  in  Indian 
Service";  "Correlation  of  Schoolroom  and  Farm  Work";  "The 
Education  of  the  American  Farmer";  "The  Practical  Value  of 
Teaching  Agriculture  in  the  Public  Schools" ;  "The  Teaching  of 
Agriculture  with  Reference  to  Future  Employment." 

In  1903  a  committee  on  "Industrial  Education  in  Schools  for 
Rural  Communities"  was  appointed.  The  committee  made  its 
report  at  the  meeting  of  1905  and  represents  the  most  important 
contributipn  of  the  Association  to  agricultural  education  in  the 
third  period  (1903-6).  A  considerable  part  of  the  report  deals 
with  agricultural  subjects  and  their  adaptation  to  elementary 
and  secondary  rural  schools.  Among  the  recommendations  of  the 
committee  are  the  following:  "A  modification  of  the  course  of 
study  should  be  made  for  the  introduction  of  work,  especially 
in  the  elements  of  agriculture  and  domestic  science,  and  such 
further  lines  of  industrial  education  as  local  conditions  make 
feasible The  establishment  of  schools  distinctly  indus- 
trial (agricultural  high  schools)  in  their  character  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  the  proper  development  and  organization  of  the 
rural-school  system." 

A  detailed  course  of  study  for  all  the  grades  is  submitted. 
It  is  an  interesting  contrast  to  the  course  of  study  reported  by 
the  Committee  of  Twelve  of  1897.  In  the  latter  the  idea  that 
agricultural  subjects  should  receive  attention  in  the  rural  schools 
is  suggested  rather  than  definitely  stated  and  outlined.  In  the 
former  this  idea  is  expressed  in  a  definite  and  concrete  outline 
with  illustrative  lessons. 

The  work  in  agriculture  for  the  secondary  schools  is  particu- 


62        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

larly  well  outlined,  and  illustrated  by  accounts  of  work  actually 
carried  on  in  two  existing  agricultural  high  schools:  one  the 
Dunn  County  (Wisconsin)  School  of  Agriculture  and  Domestic 
Economy;  the  other,  the  Minnesota  Agricultural  High  School 
connected  with  the  Agricultural  College  of  Minnesota  (8i). 

The  fourth  period  is  characterized  by  a  more  active  interest 
in  agricultural  education.  Three  important  steps  were  taken : 
(a)  continuation  of  Committee  on  Industrial  Education  in 
Schools  for  Rural  Communities;  (b)  formation  of  National 
Committee  on  Agricultural  Education;  (c)  organization  of  a 
Department  of  Rural  and  Agricultural  Education. 

The  Committee  on  Industrial  Education  in  Schools  for 
Rural  Communities  made  two  reports,  one  at  the  meeting  of  the 
Association  in  1907  and  the  other  at  the  meeting  of  1908. 

In  some  preliminary  investigation  for  the  supplementary 
report  the  correspondence  showed  that  "what  was  most  wanted 
was  a  definite  statement  of  what  was  actually  being  done  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  in  providing  facilities  for  industrial 
education  in  rural  communities."  The  supplementary  report 
represents  the  efforts  of  the  committee  to  satisfy  this  demand. 
It  consists  of  three  parts:  a  discussion  of  the  general  problem, 
including  school  buildings,  school  gardens,  manual  training,  na- 
tionalizing the  work  (referring  to  the  Davis  bill  then  before 
Congress)  and  in  what  schools  agriculture  should  be  taught; 
industrial  work  in  New  England,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
and  New  York;  experiences  and  opinions  of  individual  teachers 
in  the  preceding  territory  (82). 

The  second  report  (1908)  is  limited  to  "a  presentation  of 
what  is  being  done  in  schools  representing  four  types  of  organi- 
zation, as  showing  the  possibilities  in  other  schools  of  these  types 
and  the  conditions  under  which  these  possibilities  may  become 
actualities."  The  schools  selected  and  reported  upon  are  the 
Waterford  High  School,  at  Waterford,  Pa.,  the  Cecil  County 
High  School,  at  Calvert,  Md,,  the  John  Swaney  Consolidated 
School,  in  Magnolia  Township,  Putnam  County,  111.,  and  the 


STATE  AND  OTHER  TEACHERS'  ASSOCIATIONS  63 

congressional  district  agricultural  schools  located  at  Americus 
and  Monroe,  Ga.  Each  type  is  described  in  sufficient  detail  to 
give  a  clear  understanding  of  its  organization  and  actual  work. 
The  final  conclusions  of  the  Committee  are  summed  up  in 
nine  paragraphs,  two  of  which  should  be  quoted  here  since  they 
refer  to  conditions  that  continue  to  exist : 

That  the  supply  of  properly  trained  teachers  for  carrying  on  this  work 
is  totally  inadequate  to  meet  even  the  present  demand,  and  that  the  increase 
in  the  demand  for  such  teachers  in  the  near  future  requires  a  very  large 
increase  in  the  facilities  for  their  preparation,  and  to  supply  these  facilities 
special  training  schools  should  be  established  throughout  the  country  for 
the  preparation  of  elementary  rural-school  teachers;  that  the  normal  schools 
whose  graduates  find  positions  in  rural  schools  should  broaden  and  strengthen 
in  every  way  their  courses  of  instruction  along  industrial  lines  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  rural  schools;  that  the  agricultural  colleges  favorably  situated 
for  such  work  should  undertake  to  organize  special  courses  for  the  purpose 
of  training  teachers  for  the  secondary  schools,  capable  of  giving  instruction 
in  agriculture  and  related  subjects. 

That  in  the  growth  of  public  sentiment,  in  the  development  of  ideals,  in 
the  preparation  of  courses  of  study,  and  in  the  facilities  for  the  training  of 
teachers  for  industrial  work  in  rural  schools,  decided  progress  has  been 
made  in  recent  years;  but  that  much  yet  remains  to  be  done  before  the 
importance  and  value  of  this  kind  of  industrial  education  shall  be  fully 
appreciated  by  all  concerned,  and  before  it  shall  receive  its  appropriate 
recognition  and  find  its  proper  place  in  our  educational  system  (83). 

In  1906  a  call  was  sent  out  to  members  of  the  Association 
who  were  interested  in  agricultural  education  to  be  present  at 
the  annual  meeting  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  for 
the  purpose  of  discussing  various  problems  concerning  this  sub- 
ject. There  was  an  encouraging  response  and  an  interesting 
meeting  was  held.  At  this  meeting  the  National  Committee  on 
Agricultural  Education  was  formed. 

The  second  conference  of  this  committee  was  held  at  the  meet- 
ing of  the  Association  of  1907.  At  this  session  three  important 
papers  were  read  and  discussed:  "The  Work  of  the  National 
Government  in  Extending  Agricultural  Education  through  the 
Public  Schools" ;  "What  Has  Been  Done  and  Is  Being  Done  by 


64        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Normal  Schools  and  Agricultural  Schools  for  Popular  Education 
in  Agriculture"  (84)  ;  "The  Work  in  Agriculture  as  Conducted 
by  State  and  County  Organizations  of  Young  People  in  Club 
Contests."  The  third  conference  of  the  committee  was  held  at 
the  meeting  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  held  at  Wash- 
ington in  1908.  Just  at  this  time  the  Davis  bill  (28)  and  the 
Burkett  bill  (28)  were  being  considered  as  separate  measures. 
Under  the  direction  of  the  National  Committee  on  Agricultural 
Education  a  conference  was  held  with  all  parties  interested  in  the 
two  measures,  resulting  in  the  introduction  in  Congress  of  a 
new  bill  embodying  the  essential  features  of  the  two  separate 
ones.  A  subcommittee  conferred  with  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  and  also  with  the  Senate  Committee  on  Agri- 
culture in  behalf  of  national  aid  for  agricultural  instruction. 

The  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  conferences  of  the  committee  were 
held  at  the  meetings  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of 
1909,  1910,  and  191 1.  At  the  fourth  session  two  committees 
were  appointed,  and  reports  were  made  at  the  fifth  session. 
These  were  on  "Credit  Value  of  High-School  Agriculture  for 
College  Entrance"  and  "The  Course  of  Study  in  Agriculture 
— What  Shall  It  Be?"  Considerable  attention  was  given  at 
each  of  these  meetings  to  federal  aid  measures  (Davis  bill, 
Dolliver  bill,  Page  bill)  before  Congress. 

At  the  nineteenth  annual  convention  (1905)  of  the  Associa- 
tion of  American  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations, 
K.  L.  Butterfield  introduced  the  following  resolution : 

Whereas,  This  Association  believes  that  the  questions  involved  in  the 
general  and  technical  education  of  the  rural  people  are  of  suflficient  impor- 
tance to  warrant  special  recognition  in  the  great  gatherings  of  American  edu- 
cators: Therefore,  be  it 

Resolved,  That  our  executive  committee  be  hereby  instructed  to  take  such 
steps  as  it  may  consider  necessary  in  an  endeavor  to  secure  the  consent  of  the 
National  Education  Association  to  add  to  its  list  of  special  departments  a  de- 
partment or  departments  of  rural  and  agricultural  education  (85,  p.  28). 

This  resolution  was  adopted  by  the  Association  and  D.  J. 
Crosby  was  delegated  to  bring  the  matter  before  the  National 


STATE  AND  OTHER  TEACHERS'  ASSOCIATIONS  65 

Education  Association  (85,  p.  47),  As  there  was  no  meeting 
of  this  Association  in  1906,  the  appHcation  was  deferred  until 
the  Los  Angeles  meeting  of  1907,  when  on  July  8,  Mr.  Crosby 
presented  the  following: 

In  view  of  the  widespread  and  active  interest  in  the  improvement  of  rural 
schools  and  in  the  development  and  extension  of  instruction  in  agriculture  and 
the  allied  subjects  of  nature-study  and  school  gardening  in  the  colleges  and 
public  schools  of  the  coimtry,  and  in  view  of  the  fact  that  there  is  no  national 
organization  of  teachers  for  discussion  of  rational  methods  of  instruction  in 
these  subjects,  the  xmdersigned  active  members  of  the  National  Education 
Association  respectfully  request  permission  to  form  a  Department  of  Rural 
and  Agricultural  Education  co-ordinate  with  the  other  regularly  constituted 
departments  of  this  Association  (followed  by  signatures  of  twenty-eight  active 
members). 

This  petition  was  received  and  authority  was  granted  to 
form  such  a  department  (82,  pp.  44-45).  The  department  was 
organized  at  the  Los  Angeles  meeting,  but  owing  to  some  irregu- 
larity in  the  proceedings  it  was  not  officially  recognized.  The 
official  organization  of  the  department  took  place  at  Washington, 
D.C.,  February  27,  1908,  during  the  1908  meeting  of  the  De- 
partment of  Superintendence  (83,  p.  136). 

Four  regular  meetings  of  the  Department  of  Rural  and  Agri- 
cultural Education  have  been  held  (in  1908,  1909,  1910,  and 
191 1 ).  As  they  are  fully  reported  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Association  no  further  reference  need  be  made  here,  except 
to  state  that  they  were  well  attended  and  much  interest  was  shown 
in  the  discussions. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  account  that  the  National 
Education  Association  has  been  and  is  an  important  factor  in 
agricultural  education,  first  in  the  way  of  propaganda,  by  bring- 
ing the  subject  prominently  before  the  teachers  of  the  entire 
country,  and  second  by  real  constructive  work  through  its  com- 
mittees and  its  Department  of  Rural  and  Agricultural  Education. 

Through  the  published  Proceedings  of  the  Association  the 
development  of  the  movement  for  agricultural  education  can  be 
followed  as  in  no  other  educational  literature  excepting  that  of 


66        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

the  National  Government  through  its  publications  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  and  of  the  Bureau  of  Education. 

STATE  AND  INTERSTATE  TEACHERS'  ASSOCIATIONS 

There  are  about  seventy  of  these  associations.  Some  v^ere  in 
existence  long  before  the  organization  of  the  National  Teachers' 
Association.  Most  of  them  publish  proceedings  of  their  meet- 
ings, but  for  lack  of  funds  and  other  causes  accounts  of  these 
meetings  are  not  always  published  except  in  local  papers. 
Enough  of  these  proceedings,  however,  are  available  in  published 
form  to  trace  any  educational  movement  as  reflected  by  the  dis- 
cussions of  these  meetings.  One  finds  that  agricultural  education 
began  to  receive  attention  from  these  associations  about  the 
same  time  that  the  National  Education  Association  became 
actively  interested  in  it.  We  find,  for  example,  the  Alabama 
Educational  Association  in  1905  devoting  a  considerable  part  of 
its  program  to  the  subject,  and  calling  W.  M.  Hays  to  give  an 
address;  the  California  State  Teachers'  Association  in  1905 
holding  joint  sessions  with  the  State  Farmers'  Institute,  and  call- 
ing L.  D.  Harvey  and  A.  C.  True  to  make  addresses ;  the  Georgia 
Teachers'  Association  in  its  meetings  of  1903,  1906,  1907,  and 
1908  giving  prominence  to  the  subject,  in  1908  holding  a  con- 
ference with  representative  business  men  from  forty- four  of 
the  fifty  counties  of  the  state  concerning  the  district  agricultural 
high  schools.  These  illustrations  are  typical  of  the  consideration 
given  agricultural  education  by  most  of  these  associations  at 
their  recent  meetings.  Their  contribution  consists  chiefly  in 
creating  an  interest  in  the  subject.  Sometimes,  however,  move- 
ments are  started  that  result  in  state  legislation. 

It  is  not  possible  in  the  limits  of  this  chapter  to  enter  into 
further  discussion  of  the  work  of  these  associations,  instructive 
as  it  might  be  to  follow  carefully  the  development  of  agricultural 
education  as  expressed  by  these  bodies  of  teachers  in  various 
sections  of  the  country. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
EDUCATIONAL  PERIODICALS 

The  number  of  educational  periodicals  published  in  the 
United  States  probably  exceeds  that  on  any  other  subject.  Most 
of  these  publications  are  in  the  library  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education.  In  1906  they  numbered  one  hundred  and 
fifty-six    (86). 

For  purposes  of  classification  the  periodicals  included  in  this 
number  may  be  considered  fairly  representative  of  all  such  pub- 
lications in  the  United  States.  They  naturally  fall  into  three 
groups:  (i)  general,  including  those  devoted  to  subjects  of 
general  interest  or  to  various  general  problems  in  education,  and 
whose  circulation  is  not  limited  to  any  particular  section  of  the 
country  or  class  of  readers;  (2)  special,  including  those  devoted 
to  some  single  phase  of  education,  as,  for  example,  orthography, 
penmanship,  phonetics,  geography,  school  art,  manual  training, 
science,  etc.;  (3)  local,  including  those  whose  main  circulation  is 
confined  to  a  single  state  or  group  of  states. 

The  bibliography  alone  of  contributions  and  references  to 
agricultural  education  in  these  periodicals  would  occupy  several 
times  the  space  allotted  to  a  single  chapter  of  this  book.  It 
will  therefore  be  necessary  to  confine  the  discussion  of  this  sub- 
ject, as  represented  in  various  educational  periodicals,  to  some 
references  of  historical  interest  in  Barnard's  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion, and  to  a  brief  account  of  each  of  the  above  three  groups. 

No  investigation  of  an  educational  movement  would  be  com- 
plete without  consulting  Barnard's  Journal  of  Education. 
"Wherever  libraries  of  education  are  now  gathered  his  encyclo- 
pedic journal  has  a  place  of  honor.  Whoever  will  found  such  a 
library  must  look  first  to  secure  a  set  of  this  great  work.  Because 
he  saw  so  far,  the  contents  of  that  great  work  will  not  soon  grow 
out  of  date"  (87).     In  this  work  are  many  references  to  agri- 

67 


68        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

cultural  education.  Three  are  worthy  of  special  interest:  early 
agricultural  schools ;  agriculture  in  schools  for  homeless  children 
and  in  schools  for  delinquent  children;  and  agricultural  educa- 
tion in  foreign  countries. 

An  account  is  given  of  probably  the  first  agricultural  school  in 
the  United  States.  It  was  founded  in  1797  at  Lethe,  S.C,  by  Dr. 
John  de  la  Howe.  He  left  a  will  which  provided  for  the  endow- 
ment of  "an  agricultural  or  farm  school  in  conformity,  as  near 
as  can  be,  to  a  plan  proposed  in  the  Columbian  Magazine  for  the 
month  of  April,  1787,  for  educating,  boarding,  and  clothing 
twelve  poor  boys  and  twelve  poor  girls  of  the  Abbeville  District." 
The  endowment  consisted  of  500  acres  of  farm  land  and  1,000 
acres  of  forest  (88). 

An  account  of  another  early  school  is  of  interest  because  it 
anticipated  some  of  the  present  notions  of  industrial  education. 
The  following  is  a  quotation  from  a  letter  of  a  Mr.  Coe  to  the 
son  of  Josiah  Holbrook,  the  founder  of  the  school : 

He  [Josiah  Holbrook]  had  long  cherished  the  idea  of  endeavoring  to 
found  an  institution  in  which  the  course  of  instruction  should  be  plain  and 
practical;  an  agricultural  school,  where  the  science  of  chemistry  and  me- 
chanics and  land  surveying  should  be  thoroughly  drilled  into  the  minds 
of  the  pupils  by  practice.  With  these  views  the  agricultural  seminary  was 
commenced  in  Derby  (Conn.)  in  1824,  and  continued  to  the  fall  of  1825, 
under  the  direction  of  your  father  and  myself;  and,  as  far  as  I  know,  was 

the  first  educational  movement  of  the  kind  in  all  that  region We 

did  what  we  could  to  train  the  students  in  the  analysis  of  soils  and  in  the 
application  of  the  mechanical  powers  to  all  farming  operations,  and  took 
out  our  young  men  often  into  the  field  and  country  for  practical  survey- 
ing, geological  excursions,  road  making,  and  the  labors  of  the  farm;  but 
not  being  able  at  that  time  to  place  the  school  on  an  eligible  foundation,  it 
was  abandoned  (89). 

Josiah  Holbrook  after  giving  up  his  school  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  adult  instruction  which  was  somewhat  like  our  present 
agricultural  extension  among  farmers. 

Our  present  organization  of  agricultural  colleges  is  very 
similar  to  a  plan  for  such  schools  proposed  in  Barnard's  Journal 
of  Education  in  1856  by  Professor  John  A.  Porter  of  Yale, 


EDUCATIONAL  PERIODICALS  69 

This  was  the  year  after  the  act  establishing  the  first  agricultural 
college  (Michigan)  was  passed  and  the  year  before  it  was 
formally  opened.  He  deplored  the  lack  of  agricultural  instruc- 
tion in  this  country  and  suggested  that  such  instruction  might 
be  supplied  by  having  a  demonstration  farm,  an  experiment  farm, 
and  means  of  instruction  in  all  sciences  connected  with  culture 
of  the  soil.    He  says : 

What  a  center  of  light  would  such  a  school  as  here  described  be  to 
the  whole  agricultural  community.  All  purported  discoveries  in  agriculture 
would  come  to  be  tested,  and  important  truths  developed  by  experiment 

would  go  forth  from  it  into  the  world Through  its  pupils  it  would 

disseminate  widely  the  varied  practical  information  which  its  courses  would 
furnish,  and  beyond  this,  it  might  be  made  a  means  of  eliciting  the  experi- 
mental labor  of  hundreds  of  intelligent  farmers  throughout  the  country, 
for  the  decision  of  the  important  agricultural  questions  which  are  still  un- 
settled (88). 

In  a  footnote  at  the  end  of  the  article  the  editor  calls  atten- 
tion to  an  account  in  his  National  Education  in  Europe  of  the 
system  of  agricultural  education  established  in  France  as  it  was 
in  1854,  and  also  to  the  Institute  of  Agriculture  and  Forestry  in 
Wurtemburg,  and  the  system  of  agricultural  education  in  Ireland. 

Pestalozzi  and  his  work,  particularly  his  influence  on  our  own 
school  practices,  receive  much  consideration  in  the  journal  under 
discussion.  For  example,  we  find  the  historical  beginning  of 
nature-study  in  this  country  in  the  object-teaching  at  Oswego. 
This  attempt  to  put  his  doctrine  into  practice  is  described  in 
great  detail  (89a).  In  another  place  Pestalozzi  is  quoted  as  say- 
ing with  reference  to  objective  teaching  that  "agricultural  labor 
offers  a  wider  field  than  any  other  employment  for  this  means." 
This  statement  should  be  contrasted  with  the  absurd  efforts  made 
in  some  schools  to  apply  these  principles.  It  would  be  interest- 
ing in  this  connection  to  trace  the  influence  of  these  early  object- 
lessons  on  nature-study  teaching  and  to  discover  to  what  extent 
it  is  responsible  for  the  struggle  which  nature-study  has  had  to 
find  a  legitimate  place  in  our  schools. 

The  agricultural  school  of  De  Fellenburg  and  Wehrli  was  a 


70        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

school  for  the  poor  at  Hopwyl,  and  many  of  the  pupils  were 
juvenile  offenders  of  various  sorts  (90).  Several  Fellenburg 
schools  were  established  in  this  country  in  the  early  part  of  the 
last  century.  The  Journal  brought  the  work  of  these  schools  in 
this  country  and  in  Europe  into  notice  again.  About  the  same 
time  there  seems  to  have  been  a  revival  of  these  methods  in 
certain  schools  and  institutions  in  this  country.  Practically  all 
of  the  reform  schools  for  boys  in  the  United  States  are  now 
provided  with  farms,  and  agriculture  is  an  important  part  of 
their  work.  How  much  influence,  if  any,  the  Journal  had  in 
bringing  this  about  we  do  not  know.  But  we  find  it  giving,  on 
the  one  hand,  details  of  such  work  as  in  the  agricultural  school 
just  referred  to,  and  on  the  other,  accounts  and  discussions  of 
reform  schools  and  institutions  for  homeless  children  in  this 
country    (91). 

Education  in  foreign  countries  occupied  a  prominent  place 
in  the  Journal.  From  time  to  time  accounts  of  agricultural 
education  in  various  countries  appeared.  A  good  example  of 
these  accounts  is  to  be  found  in  one  devoted  to  agricultural  edu- 
cation in  France  and  about  twenty  different  parts  of  the  world. 
This  is  a  part  of  an  exhaustive  study  of  scientific  instruction 
applied  to  national  industries  in  different  countries   (92). 

The  first  group  of  educational  periodicals — those  mainly  de- 
voted to  general  problems  of  education  or  to  publication  of  educa- 
tional research — is  quite  small  in  number  compared  with  the  other 
two  groups.  Their  circulation  is  also  much  less  than  most  of  those 
of  the  third  group.  Notwithstanding  their  small  number  and 
limited  circulation  these  periodicals  contain  some  of  our  most 
valuable  educational  literature,  and  are,  on  the  whole,  a  source 
of  high  authority  in  educational  matters.  The  attention  given 
to  agricultural  education  is  much  less  than  would  seem  to  be 
warranted  in  view  of  the  great  public  interest  in  the  subject  and 
of  the  fact  of  its  rapid  introduction  into  schools  of  various  sec- 
tions of  the  country.  Compared  with  other  sources  the  litera- 
ture on  this  subject  as  found  in  the  leading  periodicals  of  this 


EDUCATIONAL  PERIODICALS  71 

group  is  very  meager  (Barnard's  Journal  excepted).  A  few  of 
the  earlier  articles  discuss  how  agricultural  education  might  be 
gradually  developed  in  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools. 
Some  work  of  an  extension  character  was  regarded  at  that  time 
(1900—1901)  as  the  most  feasible  and  practicable,  nature-study, 
reading  courses,  itinerant  schools,  and  short  courses  being  sug- 
gested as  the  best  means  of  creating  an  interest  in  the  subject 

(93>  94). 

A  little  later  the  place  of  agriculture  in  our  public-school 
system  is  carefully  considered  with  conclusions  favorable  to  its 
introduction  (95).  In  the  meantime  the  subject  is  being  rapidly 
introduced  in  our  schools,  and  certain  tendencies  are  arising  that 
are  viewed  with  some  alarm  because  they  are  not  in  harmony 
with  the  national  policy  in  school  matters.  An  editorial  in  one 
periodical  calls  attention  to  some  of  the  dangers  arising  from  the 
establishment  of  agricultural  high  schools : 

If  the  new  type  of  work  means  the  establishment  of  a  separate  system 
of  high  schools,  the  existing  high  schools  will  be  sapped  of  the  very  means 

of  their  existence There  is  one  other  and  more  urgent  reason  why 

a  separate  class  of  high  schools  must  not  be  allowed  to  spring  up.  Just 
as  sure  as  they  do  they  will  breed  social  distinctions  and  cause  stratifications 
in  society.  It  has  been  our  boast  that  children  of  all  nationalities,  occupa- 
tions, and  creeds  enter  our  schoolroom  doors  and  emerge  together  as 
American  citizens.  The  American  public  school  is  the  greatest  factor  in 
developing  American  citizenship  that  we  possess,  and  its  function  in  de- 
veloping American  citizenship  is  greater  than  teaching  arithmetic,  Latin, 
or  trades.     Social  efficiency  is  much  more  needed  just  now  than  business 

efficiency.     But  alas,  too  many  are  thinking  only  of  business  acumen 

The  one  who  argues  for  the  establishment  of  a  separate  system  of  agri- 
cultural high  schools  or  separate  industrial  high  schools  is  wittingly  or  un- 
wittingly an  enemy  to  our  present  high  schools  and  to  true  democracy  (96, 
pp.  57-59). 

The  implication  in  this  editorial  that  existing  high  schools 
furnish  all  that  is  really  needed  in  secondary  education  is  open  to 
question,  and  soon  brings  a  rejoinder: 

I  am  afraid  that  the  distinctions  are  here  or  have  got  to  come,  and 
that  the  high   schools   which   are   nothing   more   than   college   preparatory 


72        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

schools  will  have  to  sink  into  relative  insignificance  compared  with  schools 
which  will  teach  the  masses  how  to  make  a  living  as  well  as  how  to  live. 
....  We  need  as  never  before  many-sided  men  and  women,  but  men  and 
women  who  will  put  how  to  live  and  how  to  make  a  living  first,  and  how 
to  use  one's  leisure  second  (97,  p.  199). 

At  present  the  importance  of  the  problem  suggested  in  the 
foregoing  discussion  is  being  appreciated,  and  all  the  more 
because  agricultural  high  schools  continue  to  be  established. 
Besides  general  discussions  of  the  whole  question  of  industrial 
education  as  related  to  elementary  and  secondary  schools  two 
plans  for  agricultural  education  in  existing  high  schools  are  pro- 
posed and  are  being  considered.  For  example,  one  writer  believes 
in  the  correlation  of  high-school  science  and  agriculture  and  gives 
numerous  illustrations  to  show  that  "the  benefit  of  correlation 
inures  as  well  to  the  fundamental  sciences  as  to  their  application 
in  agriculture"  (98).  Another  thinks  that  agriculture  should 
be  taught  as  a  separate  science.    He  says : 

"Educators  are  coming  to  see  more  and  more  clearly  that 
agriculture  is  both  a  science  and  an  art,  and  as  a  result  it  is  being 
taught  in  ways  which  are  not  strictly  applicable  to  the  teaching 
of  other  sciences."  He  sums  up  fifty-six  replies  to  a  question- 
naire sent  out  to  secondary-school  men  and  college  professors 
and  concludes  that  a  "majority  who  have  had  actual  experience 
in  teaching  the  subject  advocate  its  being  taught  separately"  (99). 

Among  the  periodicals  of  the  second  group  two  are  devoted 
to  special  phases  of  education  that  include  agriculture.  One  is 
School  Science  and  Mathematics  and  the  other  is  the  Nature- 
Study  Review.  The  former  is  published  in  the  interest  of  sec- 
ondary education  and  the  latter  of  elementary  education.  The 
editors  and  associate  editors  of  both  periodicals  are  well-known 
schoolmen  who  are  actively  interested  in  the  various  problems 
of  education  of  their  own  special  lines  of  work. 

In  a  recent  number  of  School  Science  and  Mathematics  we 
find  among  the  introductory  sentences  of  an  article  on  biologic 
science  in  secondary  schools  the  following: 


EDUCATIONAL  PERIODICALS  73 

This  is  pre-eminently  an  age  of  applied  science;  it  is  an  intensely  practi- 
cal age;  the  average  individual  comes  in  daily  contact  with  problems  of 
science  as  never  before.  It  is  self-evident  that  science  work  in  elementary 
schools  should  play  an  important  part  in  the  education  of  our  youth  who 
go  into  life — as  a  vast  majority  do — with  no  further  fitting  than  that  re- 
ceived in  the  elementary  school  or  secondary  school.  It  was  with  this 
thought  in  mind  that  the  writer  began  the  following  preliminary  investi- 
gation which  aims  in  the  first  place  to  present  some  statistics  bearing  upon 
the  teaching  of  science,  and  especially  of  biologic  science,  in  the  secondary 
schools,  and  in  the  second  place  to  suggest  possible  modifications  in  our 
present  courses  in  biologic  science  that  will  make  such  courses  a  better 
preparation  for  the  kind  of  life  into  which  most  of  our  young  people  are 
launching,  the  active  life  of  the  thinking,  doing  citizen  (100). 

This  somewhat  lengthy  quotation  with  respect  to  one  secondary- 
school  subject  is  given  because  it  represents  very  well  the 
general  attitude  of  the  recent  contributors  to  this  journal.  Agri- 
culture is  closely  allied  to  all  of  the  fundamental  sciences  and  any 
such  modifications  of  science  teaching  as  indicated  in  the  above 
reference  will  have  an  important  bearing  on  agricultural  educa- 
tion in  the  secondary  schools.  These  contributors  are  already 
teaching  particular  branches  of  science,  and  their  writings  have 
to  do  with  their  own  subjects  in  relation  to  agriculture  rather 
than  with  agriculture  as  a  separate  subject. 

The  general  field  covered  by  the  Nature-Study  Review  in- 
cludes, as  is  stated  in  the  introduction  to  the  first  number,  "school 
gardening  and  the  closely  allied  elementary  agriculture"  (loi). 
This  magazine  is  now  in  its  seventh  volume  and  has  published 
numerous  articles  on  agriculture  as  adapted  to  the  elementary 
schools.  For  awhile,  from  September  to  December,  1909,  a 
special  department  of  school  agriculture  was  conducted.  But  it 
was  abandoned,  the  policy  now  being  to  devote  certain  numbers 
exclusively  to  this  subject,  as  in  the  May  number  of  Vol.  VI.^ 

The  third  group  includes  about  one  hundred  periodicals  in 
which  every  section  of  the  country  is  represented.  It  is  through 
these  that  the  masses  of  the  teachers  are  reached.    In  many  states 

'Another  periodical  perhaps  should  be  included:  School  Agriculture,  "a.  semi-monthty 
text  for  use  in  country,  town,  and  dty  schools,  homes  and  clubs,"  published  by  The  Orange 
Judd  Co.,  beginning  January  i,  191 1. 


74       AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

some  educational  periodical  becomes  a  sort  of  official  organ 
for  the  state  department  of  education.  Practically  all  whose 
subscribers  are  teachers  in  the  rural  schools  give  considerable 
attention  to  agriculture,  mainly  in  the  way  of  suggestions  and 
helps  to  teachers.  The  effect  of  these  periodicals  on  the  actual 
teaching  of  agriculture  in  the  public  schools  has  been,  up  to  the 
present,  far  greater  than  of  any  of  the  first  or  second  group. 
One  periodical,  the  School  News  (Illinois),  has  been  referred  to 
in  a  previous  chapter  (58).  It  was  one  of  the  first  to 
take  up  elementary  agriculture  in  response  to  the  new  demand 
upon  the  rural  teachers.  In  1900  it  began  to  publish  short 
articles  on  various  phases  of  agriculture  adapted  to  the  ele- 
mentary schools.  The  practical  efforts  of  this  magazine  to  help 
the  rural  teachers  is  further  shown  in  connection  with  the  new 
course  of  study  for  the  state  of  Illinois.  This  course  includes 
agriculture.  The  department  of  the  magazine  devoted  to  school 
work  in  agriculture  expands  the  course  of  study  in  agriculture 
into  descriptive  details  and  gives  specific  directions  to  teachers 
as  to  how  to  present  the  new  work  (102). 

The  Nebraska  Teacher,  besides  publishing  special  articles  on 
various  phases  of  agriculture,  is  now  publishing  a  series  of 
articles  by  Superintendent  E.  C.  Bishop  on  "Agriculture  and 
Home  Economics"  (103).  These  articles  are  intended  to  assist 
teachers  in  their  work  with  the  boys'  and  girls'  clubs  of  the  state. 

Many  similar  examples  might  be  given  but  these  two  are 
typical  of  the  work  that  is  now  being  done  by  many  if  not  most 
of  the  periodicals  of  the  third  group.  They  are  close  to  the 
teachers  and  seem  to  know  what  they  need,  or  at  least  what  they 
want,  and  give  it  to  them  in  a  simple  and  concrete  way. 


CHAPTER  IX 
PERIODICAL  LITERATURE 

Popular  periodicals  have  become  an  important  factor  in 
education.  They  reach  thousands  of  people.  Several  have  a 
circulation  of  more  than  100,000,  and  a  few  claim  to  reach  a 
million  readers.  Every  subject  of  popular  interest  is  exploited. 
This  popular  interest  determines  in  a  large  measure  the  choice 
of  subject-matter,  but  not  always.  Interest  in  new  things 
is  often  stimulated  by  well-written  articles.  Indeed  there  is  a 
keen  search  for  new  things  or  the  beginnings  of  new  move- 
ments that  may  seem  to  have  elements  of  popular  interest. 
The  importance  of  rural  education,  the  inefficiency  of  the  pres- 
ent system,  and  the  need  of  redirecting  rural  education  are 
new  things  from  the  standpbint  of  the  popular  periodical. 

An  educational  system  which  originated  in  pioneer  days, 
and  which  served  its  purpose  well  in  those  days,  persists  today 
with  less  modification  than  has  taken  place  in  any  other  fea- 
ture of  rural  life.  The  few  changes  that  have  taken  place  were 
brought  about  largely  through  imitation,  either  voluntarily  or 
impressed  by  law,  of  urban  schools,  and  were  not  the  changes 
of  an  adaptive  growth.  This  static  condition  of  rural  educa- 
tion was  until  a  few  years  ago,  and  is,  in  most  communities  at 
the  present  time,  looked  upon  with  complacency  and  satisfac- 
tion. Patrons  who  were  not  satisfied  quietly  moved  to  some 
town  or  city  where  their  children  might  have  better  educational 
advantages,  but  little  or  no  criticism  of  the  rural  school  was 
ventured  and  little  or  no  effort  made  to  improve  it. 

With  this  situation  in  mind,  it  is  easy  to  see  why  any 
departure  from  the  established  routine  in  rural-school  manage- 
ment or  any  effort  to  make  its  work  better  adapted  to  rural 
conditions  would  be  regarded  by  editors  of  popular  periodicals 
as  something  new  and  worthy  of  wide  publicity. 

75 


76        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Consolidation  of  rural  schools  began  in  the  early  nineties. 
Various  periodicals  gave  accounts  of  the  schools  of  Kingsville 
Township,  Ohio,  which  in  1892  instituted  a  plan  of  consoli- 
dation for  rural  schools.  This  movement  soon  attracted  much 
attention,  and  many  visits  were  made  to  Ohio  for  the  pur- 
pose of  seeing  the  plan  in  actual  operation.  In  a  few  years  the 
plan  was  not  only  extended  to  other  parts  of  Ohio  but  was 
introduced  in  many  other  states.  It  has  worked  so  successfully 
as  to  be  considered  one  of  the  most  important  features  of  any 
general  scheme  for  improving  rural  schools. 

The  work  of  Kingsville  Township  was  not  the  historical 
beginning  of  the  consolidated-school  movement,  but  it  was  the 
potential  beginning,  largely  due  to  the  public  notice  it  received 
through  newspapers  and  periodicals. 

Superintendent  O,  J.  Kern,  of  Winnebago  County,  111.,  had 
barely  demonstrated  the  success  of  his  Farmer  Boys'  Experi- 
ment Club  which  he  had  organized  in  February,  1902,  among 
the  schoolboys  of  his  county,  when  he  was  asked  to  give  an 
account  of  it  in  one  of  our  leading  popular  magazines.  This 
work  of  his  was  something  new  in  a  county  system  of  schools, 
and  furthermore  it  had  begun  at  once  to  interest  farmers  and 
to  change  their  attitude  toward  the  rural  schools.  Winnebago 
County  was  a  typical  county  with  large  agricultural  interests. 
Its  problems  and  interests  were  like  those  of  hundreds  of  other 
counties.  Superintendent  Kern  had  found  something  that  looked 
toward  making  the  school  life  of  the  country  boys  more  worth 
while,  but  he  had  much  more  in  mind  than  his  Boys'  Experiment 
Club.  He  believed  that  the  whole  rural-school  system  needed 
readjustment  and  that  it  might  be  slowly  brought  about. 

Here  was  a  chance  for  the  magazine  to  be  of  service  by 
giving  publicity  to  successful  work,  and  for  the  writer  to  get 
others  interested  in  his  plans,  and  to  get  them  to  work  along 
similar  lines.  The  article  appeared  under  the  title  of  "Learn- 
ing by  Doing  for  the  Farmer  Boy"  and  was  illustrated  by  five 
good  pictures  with  the  "boy"  prominently  in  the  foreground  of 


PERIODICAL  LITERATURE  77 

each.  The  title  and  the  pictures  were  attractive  and  were  likely 
to  cause  the  reader  to  pause  in  turning  through  the  pages  of  the 
magazine  long  enough  at  least  to  read  the  introductory  para- 
graph. This  was  an  expression  of  an  ideal  for  rural  education 
which  up  to  that  time  (1903)  had  not  come  much  into  public 
notice : 

It  is  not  the  belief  or  wish  of  the  writer  that  we  should  educate  country- 
boys  to  be  farmers  merely,  any  more  than  that  we  should  educate  boys  to 
be  blacksmiths,  carpenters,  or  electricians.  We  should  aim  to  train  boys  to 
be  men  in  the  highest  sense  of  the  term.  But  why  not  a  course  of  training 
in  the  country  school  for  the  country  boy  which  shall  teach  him  more  about 
country  life  around  him?  Along  with  his  study  of  the  kangaroo,  the 
bamboo,  and  the  cockatoo,  why  not  study  the  animals  on  the  farm  and  a 
proper  feeding-standard  for  them,  the  care  and  composition  of  the  soil  on 
the  farm,  the  improvement  of  types  of  grains  and  vegetables,  and  the  pro- 
tection of  birds  beneficial  to  the  farmer?  Instead  of  all  the  boys'  arith- 
metic being  devoted  to  problems,  more  or  less  theoretical,  on  banking,  stocks, 
exchange,  brokerage,  alligation,  and  partnership,  why  not  some  practical 
problems  with  reference  to  farm  economics?  For  the  boys  who  will  remain 
on  the  farm  (and  85  per  cent  perhaps  will)  the  course  of  instruction  should 
be  such  as  will  be  an  inspiration  and  a  help  in  their  future  life-work  (104). 

A  year  later  under  the  title  of  "Common-Sense  Country 
Schools"  a  description  of  Mr.  Kern's  work  appeared  in  another 
magazine  (105).  Other  references  to  his  work  have  been  pub- 
lished from  time  to  time. 

Boys'  clubs  for  carrying  on  agricultural  experiments  have 
been  organized  in  all  of  the  agricultural  states.  Accounts  of 
their  work  are  attractive  reading,  and  no  doubt  not  only  stimu- 
late the  boys  in  other  localities  to  form  similar  clubs  but  help 
to  educate  adult  farmers  to  be  more  appreciative  of  expert 
opinion.  But  the  most  important  contribution  made  by  periodi- 
cals to  agricultural  education  through  boys'  clubs  has  been  in 
making  the  way  easier  for  agricultural  colleges  and  public-school 
officers  to  carry  on  the  work  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

In  the  same  number  of  the  magazine  in  which  Mr.  Kern's 
article  appeared  is  another  dealing  with  the  problem  of  rural 
education  (106).     The  need  of  a  school  system  adapted  to  rural 


78        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

conditions  is  set  forth.  Special  emphasis  is  placed  upon  the 
value  of  agricultural  high  schools  and  of  consolidated  rural 
schools.  At  that  time  there  were  twelve  agricultural  high 
schools  in  the  United  States;  in  1910  over  seventy-five. 

Another  account  of  important  work  in  agricultural  educa- 
tion was  published  in  the  same  year  (1903)  with  the  title 
"Teaching  Farmers'  Children  on  the  Ground"  (107).  It  is  of 
interest  to  compare  the  opinion  of  Superintendent  Kern  as  to 
the  needs  of  the  rural  school  with  that  of  the  writer  of  this 
article  who  was  not  professionally  engaged  in  education.  The 
following  is  taken  from  his  description  of  a  rural  school: 

But  there  is  more  the  matter  with  the  ordinary  country  school  than  its 

smallness  of  scale Yet  that  these  children  come  from  homes  where 

the  livelihood  is  earned  out  of  the  ground  is  ignored  in  the  lessons.  The 
instruction  as  far  as  it  goes  is  good:  it  is  staple  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic, with  a  little  grammar,  geography,  and  history.  This  is  all.  It  might 
do  well  enough  if  the  boys  and  girls  were  all  going  to  be  clerks  or  traders; 
or  if,  in  the  fulness  of  their  ambition,  they  were  to  strike  out  for  profes- 
sional careers.  But  of  sowing  and  reaping  there  is  never  a  word;  nothing 
about  planting  and  tending  of  trees,  the  production  of  milk,  butter,  and 
cheese.  Never,  even  remotely,  does  a  lesson  touch  on  building  and  drain- 
age, on  the  composition  of  foods  or  chemistry  of  fuel,  or  light  up  for  so 
much  as  a  moment  the  drama  of  struggle  and  survival  of  which  every 
clover  patch  is  a  theater.  It  is  well  that  children  should  learn  at  school 
useful  lessons  they  can  learn  nowhere  else,  but  should  not  the  children 
of  the  farm  be  led  to  see  somewhat  of  the  inexhaustible  scope  for  brains 
which  offers  itself  to  the  farmer?  The  fact  is,  that  rural  instruction  has 
been  largely  devised  in  cities  with  a  view  to  city  conditions.  And  the 
courses  in  city  schools  are  faulty  enough,  ridden  as  they  are  by  clerky  tra- 
ditions which  permit  the  word  to  usurp  the  place  of  the  act,  instead  of 
being  merely  its  symbol  and  aid.  The  second  evil  in  rural  education 
throughout  America  is  the  stress  laid  upon  verbal  studies,  the  blinking  of  the 
actual  world  of  duty  and  joy  for  which  country  children  should  be  in- 
formed and  trained. 

This  is  followed  by  a  description  of  the  proposed  scheme  for 
the  improvement  of  rural  education  in  Canada  planned  on  a 
scale  to  include  the  whole  Dominion.  Not  only  is  this  descrip- 
tion accurate  but  it  includes  a  good  historical  and  economic 


PERIODICAL  LITERATURE  79 

background.  This  account  of  the  "Macdonald  Movement" 
before  it  was  carried  out  in  actual  practice  prepared  the  public 
mind  for  the  numerous  reports  of  the  work  that  have  appeared 
since. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  one  more  popular  article  on  rural 
education  appearing  in  '1903,  entitled  "Farmer  Children  Need 
Farmer  Studies"  (108).  The  title  indicates  the  general  nature 
of  the  discussion.  That  the  writer  is  in  full  accord  with  the 
views  already  noted  of  other  contributors  is  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing statements: 

Our  educational  system  has  been  made  for  city  people,  and  the  country 
school  finds  it  second  hand  and  ill-fitting  and  unattractive.  To  this  fact 
more  than  any  other,  perhaps,  is  due  the  backwardness  of  education  in  agri- 
cultural states. 

Quoted  from  a  private  letter : 

Statistics  show  that  in  this  state  each  year  sixty  young  men  take  up 
ministry,  sixty-six  law,  and  seventy-two  medicine,  while  13,000  annually 
take  up  agriculture  as  a  gainful  pursuit.    But  our  school  books  are  written 

for  the   few   not  the  many At  present  the  entire  curriculum  leads 

away  from  the  farm Pick  up  any  high-grade  arithmetic  in  use  in 

the  rural  schools  and  you  will  find  no  lack  of  attention  to  banking  and 
commissions  and  foreign  exchange  and  commercial  affairs  generally.  But 
agriculture  arises  to  no  such  dignity — not  even  in  schools  that  will  find  five 
times  as  many  recruits  for  the  farm  as  for  the  city.  The  same  applies  to 
other  texts. 

The  typical  examples  above  presented  of  popular  periodical 
literature  on  rural  education  appeared  in  1903.  This  year  was 
chosen  because  it  seemed  to  mark  the  beginning  of  a  somewhat 
general  public  interest  in  the  subject,  and  partly  because  most  of 
the  development  of  agricultural  education  in  elementary  and 
secondary  schools  has  taken  place  since  that  time. 

During  the  period  from  1904  to  the  present  the  subject  of 
rural  education  has  continued  to  receive  notice  in  popular  peri- 
odicals (105,  109,  no,  III,  112).  The  public  has  been  kept  in- 
formed concerning  various  phases  of  its  development,  agricultural 
and  other  industrial  work  in  schools  receiving  especial  attention. 


8o        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

One  magazine  addressed  the  following  question  to  a  num- 
ber of  prominent  educators :  "What  new  subject  or  new  method 
or  new  direction  of  effort  or  new  tendency  in  educational  work 
is  of  most  value  and  significance  and  now  needs  most  emphasis 
and  encouragement?"  (113).  Nineteen  replies  were  received. 
As  most  of  the  writers  were  college  presidents  various  college 
problems  were  mentioned  as  of  greatest  importance  but  no  two 
proposed  the  same  problem.  The  only  subject  that  was  men- 
tioned by  more  than  three  was  practical  education,  summed  up 
as  follows:  Trade  work  in  public  schools;  interest  in  rural 
schools;  practical  studies;  agriculture  for  rural  schools;  reach- 
ing all  the  people ;  teaching  every  man  his  job. 

A  good  account  of  the  present  status  of  agricultural  educa- 
tion in  elementary  and  secondary  schools  appeared  under  the 
title  "Catching  Them  Young"  (114).  After  describing  some 
recent  progress  in  farming  methods  the  author  adds : 

Of  what  value  is  this  knowledge  if  the  sons  and  daughters  are  to  quit 
the  farm,  leaving  corn-belt  prosperity  to  the  haphazard  agriculture  of  the 
city-bom  and  of  transplanting  foreigners  who  find  conditions  and  climate 
vastly  different  from  those  of  the  fatherland?  Therefore  the  corn-belt 
has  at  last  set  itself  to  raising  that  greater  and  more  valuable  crop  of  farm 
boys  and  farm  girls  who  find  material  comforts  and  ample  financial  recom- 
pense on  the  farm.    The  greatest  factor  in  the  raising  of  this  new  crop  is 

education But  the  farm  boys  and  girls  in  order  to  be  interested  must 

be  caught  young.  Before  they  are  old  enough  to  enter  the  land-grant  col- 
leges the  lure  of  the  city  has  entered  their  minds  and  the  mischief  is  done. 
Raising  bumper  crops  of  corn  and  oats,  the  typically  agricultural  states  of 
America  have  heretofore  failed  to  raise  satisfactory  crops  of  stay-at-home 
boys  and  g^irls. 

An  editorial  in  another  magazine  revives  the  criticism  which 
appeared  against  rural  schools  a  few  years  before.  It  is  entitled 
"The  Martian  and  the  Farm"  (115)  and  makes  the  remarks  of 
the  supposed  Martian  who  is  represented  as  visiting  an  ordinary 
country  school  the  basis  of  some  pointed  comments  on  the  rural 
schools : 

I  notice  that  these  Americans  seem  to  think  the  raising  of  crops  to  be 
quite  unnecessary;  and  that  they  are  applying  their  remarkable  intelligence 


PERIODICAL  LITERATURE  8l 

to  the  task  of  depopulating  their  rural  regions.  They  have  acuteness  to  see 
that  if  they  are  to  drive  people  out  of  the  country,  they  cannot  begin  with 
the  adult  population.  Life  in  the  open  country  is  so  alluring  and  so  natural 
that  even  when  it  has  not  been  made  as  complete  as  it  might  be,  it  holds 
people  fast.  So  these  far-reaching  Americans,  in  order  to  crowd  people  back 
into  the  cities,  where  they  obviously  want  them  to  be,  have  devised  a  cam- 
paign of  education  directed  toward  the  children.  They  have  planned  all  their 
rural  schools  on  city  models.  Even  in  such  details  as  arithmetic  problems,  they 

see  to  it  that  the  children's  minds  should  be  directed  toward  urban  life 

If  this  visitor  were  told  what  he  interpreted  as  an  astute  campaign  was  a 
mere  matter  of  stupidity  and  tradition,  and  that  the  American  People  were 
really  wondering  how  they  could  check  the  congestion  of  cities,  he  would 
be  forced,  out  of  decent  respect  for  the  people  he  was  visiting,  to  be  in- 
credulous. 

How  can  a  child  born  and  reared  in  the  country  respect  the  life  of  the 
farmer  when  the  community  in  which  he  lives  does  not  regard  the  farmer's 
occupation  worthy  of  study?  How  can  he  be  expected  to  look  with  ambition 
toward  agriculture  as  a  vocation  when  he  finds  that  training  for  it  is  regarded 
as  less  important  than  preparation  for  a  clerkship?  How  can  he  think  of 
village  and  rural  life  as  anything  more  than  a  makeshift  when  he  finds  that 
in  the  schools  he  attends  there  is  not  a  word  taught  concerning  crops  or 
cattle  or  roads? 

The  situation  in  this  country  is  then  contrasted  with  the 
national  policy  of  rural  education  recently  inaugurated  in 
Canada  and  the  importance  of  a  similar  movement  in  this  country 
suggested.  The  criticism  of  the  condition  in  rural  schools  as  to 
their  indifference  to  rural  life  does  not  go  unchallenged.  In  a 
later  number  of  the  same  magazine  appears  a  reply  in  which  the 
editor  is  brought  to  task  for  making  implications  that  were  not 
warranted  by  the  facts  in  the  case.  The  work  in  agricultural 
education  of  the  Middle  West  is  cited  as  a  refutation.  The 
writer  in  a  five  months'  visit  in  Canada  had  been  unable  to  see 
any  reason  for  holding  up  the  Canadian  scheme  for  rural  edu- 
cation as  a  model  for  this  country  ( 1 16) . 

Another  letter  of  reply  is  published  from  a  farmer  who  could 
see  no  more  reason  why  "a  country  child  should  be  taught  how 
to  run  a  farm  than  a  city  child  should  be  taught  how  to  run  a 
bank." 


82        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

It  seems  plain  to  me  [he  says]  that  the  public  schools  are  intended  to 
give  the  young  a  practical  education  to  prepare  them  for  life,  not  to  prepare 
them  for  any  particular  work  in  life.  ...  .  Why  tax  the  community  in 
general  to  instruct  its  children  for  work  and  life  on  the  farm,  when  many 
of  the  patrons  and  many  of  the  children  themselves  would  prefer  general 
education?  (117). 

The  above  editorial  and  its  sequel,  the  two  letters  of  reply,  give 
some  insight  into  the  present  situation.  No  doubt  the  condition 
referred  to  in  the  editorial  does  not  apply  to  all  rural  schools 
but  in  general  it  is  not  much  overdrawn.  The  writer  of  the 
first  letter  unduly  magnifies  the  work  of  agricultural  education 
in  this  country,  for  it  has  not  had  time  to  modify  the  ordinary 
rural  schools  to  any  considerable  extent,  even  in  the  favored 
Middle  West.  On  the  other  hand,  his  five  months'  visit  in 
Canada  failed  to  show  him  that  the  efforts  of  the  Canadian 
educators  are  aimed  directly  at  the  rural  schools.  The  second 
letter  reveals  an  attitude  which  is  familiar  to  those  who  have 
undertaken  to  hold  up  the  chief  interest  of  a  rural  community 
as  a  motive  for  better  schools. 

In  reviewing  the  relation  of  popular  periodicals  to  agricul- 
tural education  only  typical  examples  have  been  given.  No 
attempt  has  been  made  to  have  the  references  complete.  Suffi- 
cient citations  have  been  given  to  indicate  the  character  and  scope 
of  the  discussions  of  the  subject  as  they  have  appeared  in  these 
periodicals,  and  to  show  the  service  rendered  by  keeping  the 
subject  before  the  public,  and  by  helping  to  secure  a  favorable 
attitude  toward  the  improvement  of  rural  schools. 

Brief  reference  should  be  made  also  to  periodicals  whose 
circulation  is  limited  to  smaller  groups  of  readers.  There  is  a 
large  number  published  in  the  interest  of  farmers.  Most  of 
them  are  local,  being  chiefly  confined  in  circulation  to  a  single 
state.  Many  are  of  doubtful  value.  Those  that  are  really  sincere 
in  their  efforts  to  improve  farm  life  have  exerted  considerable  in- 
fluence for  the  betterment  of  rural  schools  and  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  agriculture.     Special  articles  as  well  as  letters  from  sub- 


PERIODICAL  LITERATURE  83 

scribers  are  published.  The  most  important  of  these  are  reviewed 
from  time  to  time  in  the  Experiment  Station  Record  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  (17)  and  need  not  be  men- 
tioned here  except  in  this  general  way.  On  the  whole,  agricultural 
periodicals  have  maintained  too  conservative  an  attitude  toward 
agricultural  education,  both  as  to  colleges,  and  to  elementary 
and  secondary  schools.  One  cannot  avoid  the  suspicion  that  this 
attitude  on  the  part  of  some  of  these  publications  is  not  wholly 
disinterested.  Agricultural  education  would,  among  other 
things,  most  certainly  develop  more  critical  readers,  and  this 
would  soon  react  upon  the  circulation  or  upon  the  character  of 
the  matter  published.  Again,  the  fear  of  offending  some  of  their 
readers,  thus  affecting  circulation,  makes  the  publishers  cautious 
in  giving  space  to  views  that  might  unsettle  the  faith  of  the 
fathers  in  the  little  one-room  school. 

Occasionally  a  well-written  article  on  agricultural  education 
appears  in  the  more  special  periodicals.  For  example,  in  a  maga- 
zine "devoted  to  the  philosophy  of  science"  we  find  a  discussion 
of  "Agriculture  the  Basis  of  Education"  (118).  The  writer 
regards  the  two  primal  contacts  of  the  child,  with  nature  and 
with  parents,  as  more  fundamental  than  all  questions  of  subject- 
matter  and  methods  of  formal  education.  "The  mental  con- 
ditions of  agriculture  are  just  as  essential  to  normal  development 
of  the  human  mind  as  air,  food,  and  exercise  for  the  development 
of  the  human  body."  He  refers  to  the  education  of  the 
early  Greeks  in  support  of  his  views:  "The  young  Greek  of 
the  Homeric  age  appears  to  have  had  much  more  intimate  and 
adequate  contacts  with  nature  and  with  his  elders  than  our 
modern  education  provides,  or  even  permits." 

A  similar  conclusion  as  to  the  educational  influence  of  agri- 
culture, though  discussed  from  an  entirely  different  standpoint, 
is  found  in  an  article  on  "Farm  Life  as  a  Basis  of  Practical 
Education"  (119).  The  subject  for  another  discussion  is  the 
"Need  for  Agricultural  Education"   (120),     The  economic  im- 


84        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

portance  of  this  kind  of  education  is  urged.     Another  point  of 
view  is  set  forth  under  the  title  "Rural  Education"  (121). 

Rural  education  is  but  a  section  of  the  general  school  question;  agricul- 
tural education  is  a  branch  of  technical  training.  These  two  phases  of 
education  of  the  farm  population  meet  at  many  points,  they  must  work  in 
harmony,  and  together  they  form  a  distinct  educational  problem. 

Three  difficulties  are  mentioned:  (i)  To  secure  a  modern 
school  equal  to  the  city  school;  (2)  to  enrich  and  expand  the  cur- 
riculum so  as  to  make  it  a  vital  and  coherent  part  of  rural- 
community  life;  (3)  to  provide  adequate  high-school  facilities 
in  the  rural  community. 


CHAPTER  X 

STATE  ORGANIZATIONS   FOR  AGRICULTURE-FARMERS' 
INSTITUTES 

Perhaps  no  other  offices  concerned  with  the  public  business 
of  various  states  include  so  wide  a  range  of  activities,  duties, 
aims,  and  methods  as  do  the  state  organizations  for  agriculture. 
One  state  commissioner  of  agriculture  says  of  his  department : 

If  I  were  asked  to  supply  a  name,  it  would  be  called  the  Dumping 
Ground  for  a  Legislature  to  place  all  subject-matter  that  body  finds  neces- 
sary to  frame  into  law. 

The  justice  of  this  observation  will  be  more  readily  appre- 
ciated by  reference  to  the  following  constitutional  provisions  for 
his  office: 

He  shall  perform  such  duties  in  relation  to  agriculture  as  may  be  pre- 
scribed by  law,  shall  have  supervision  of  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  public 
lands  under  regulations  prescribed  by  law,  and  shall  keep  the  Bureau  of 
Immigration.  He  shall  also  have  supervision  of  the  State  Prison,  and 
shall  perform  such  other  duties  as  may  be  prescribed  by  law. 

Some  state  organizations  for  agriculture  have  even  a  wider 
range  of  duties.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  some  in  which 
the  duties  of  this  office  are  limited  to  the  supervision  of  the 
state  agricultural  college,  or  to  the  management  of  the  state 
fair. 

There  are  five  forms  of  organization.  The  first  includes  those  organi- 
zations known  as  "Departments''  and  consists  of  a  commissioner  and  one 
or  more  assistants.  The  second  form  comprises  the  boards,  which  are  com- 
posed of  a  varying  number  of  members,  some  appointed  by  the  governor 
and  others  being  members  of  the  board  by  virtue  of  their  official  position 
in  the  state.  The  third  includes  bureaus  which  are  essentially  the  same 
as  the  boards.  The  fourth  form  is  a  combination  of  the  first  and  second ; 
the  regular  department  is  supervised  by  a  board  of  agriculture.  The  fifth 
and  final  form  is  that  known  as  the  Michigan  organization,  under  which 
the  state  board  of  agriculture  is  merely  a  board  of  trustees  for  the  state 
agricultural  college  (122,  p.  328). 

85 


86        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

In  about  half  the  states  the  administrative  officer  is  chosen 
by  popular  vote;  in  the  rest  he  is  appointed  by  the  governor 
or  chosen  by  the  members  of  the  board.  Being  thus  a  political 
office  in  some  instances,  the  position  as  secretary  or  commis- 
sioner of  agriculture  is  more  or  less  on  a  political  basis,  and 
therefore  fails  properly  to  fulfil  the  purpose  for  which  it  was 
intended,  viz.,  to  promote  the  agricultural  interests  of  the  state. 
It  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  sum  up  the  work  now 
being  done  by  the  various  state  departments,  and  by  the  state 
farmers'  institutes  in  promoting  agricultural  education,  particu- 
larly in  elementary  and  secondary  schools. 

In  one-half  of  the  states  the  farmers'  institutes  are  con- 
ducted under  the  direct  or  indirect  control  of  the  state  organi- 
zations for  agriculture;  in  the  other  half  they  are  conducted  by 
the  state  agricultural  colleges.  Since  the  methods  and  aims  of 
all  farmers'  institutes  are  essentially  the  same  in  both  groups, 
those  under  state  supervision  and  those  under  state  agricultural 
college  supervision  will  be  considered  in  the  second  part  of  this 
discussion.  As  might  be  expected,  the  attitude  of  the  various 
state  organizations  for  agriculture  is  favorable  toward  agricul- 
tural education  in  the  public  schools.  In  many  reports  of  sec- 
retaries or  commissioners  of  agriculture  much  emphasis  is  placed 
upon  the  importance  of  recognizing  agriculture  as  a  school 
subject.    The  following  extract  is  typical: 

The  Department  has  continued  its  eflforts  to  impress  upon  the  people 
of  the  state  the  importance  and  necessity  of  agricultural  and  industrial 
instruction  in  the  public  schools.  These  schools  should  fit  for  vocation. 
The  population  of  this  and  other  states  is  continually  increasing,  and  in 
order  for  the  farms  to  meet  this  increase  there  must  be  a  more  intelligent 
system  of  agriculture.  This  can  best  be  brought  about  by  teaching  the 
principles  of  agriculture  in  the  public  schools.  The  farmer  has  a  business 
to  be  studied  and  learned.  It  needs  a  trained  mind  as  much  as  any  oth  r 
occupation.  Let  us  educate  our  boys  who  are  to  be  farmers  of  the  future, 
for  that  work.  Specific  training  of  a  practical  kind  is  a  necessity  for  the 
coming  occupants  of  our  farms,  as  well  as  those  engaged  in  mechanical 
industries.     The  most  valuable  asset  of  the  state  is  her  children.     They 


STATE  ORGANIZATIONS  FOR  AGRICULTURE  87 

should  be  trained  to  high  ideals  of  every  day  living  and  to  high  eflSciency 
in  their  respective  vocations  (123,  p.  n)- 

At  the  annual  meetings  of  boards  of  agriculture  of  several 
states  agricultural  education  receives  attention,  special  addresses 
being  given  on  this  subject  and  published  in  the  proceedings 
(124,  125,  126,  127). 

Special  bulletins  or  leaflets  are  published  and  distributed 
by  a  few  state  offices  of  agriculture.  The  Massachusetts 
State  Board  of  Agriculture  has  issued  from  time  to  time 
leaflets  on  elementary  agriculture  and  nature-study.  The  New 
York  State  Department  of  Agriculture  publishes  annual  reports 
of  the  state  Experiment  Station  at  Cornell  University.  These 
contain  reprints  of  various  nature-study,  rural  school,  and 
teachers'  leaflets  sent  out  from  Cornell  University,  and  also 
accounts  of  the  extension  work  in  agriculture  and  nature- 
study  conducted  by  the  university  among  the  schools  of  the 
state.  The  Missouri  State  Board  has  recently  published 
a  bulletin  on  elementary  agriculture  meant  to  be  used  "only 
as  the  first  year's  work,"  and  "written  on  the  supposition  that 
neither  teacher  nor  pupils  know  much  of  scientific  agriculture" 
(128). 

About  half  of  the  states  hold  annual  state  fairs  under 
the  management  of  the  state  offices  of  agriculture.  In  nearly 
all,  there  is  a  department  of  education  in  which  prizes  are 
offered  for  school  exhibits.  Some  give  special  encouragement 
to  agricultural  subjects.  The  prizes  amount  to  a  few  dollars  in 
some  fairs  and  to  several  hundred  in  others. 

The  Nebraska  State  Fair  offered  "to  the  Nebraska  boy 
under  eighteen  years  of  age,  growing  the  largest  yield  of  com 
from  one  acre  of  ground,  in  the  year  1910,  $50;  second,  $25; 
third,  $20;  fourth,  $15;  fifth,  $10;  and  to  the  sixth,  seventh, 
eighth,  ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh,  $5  each." 

The  South  Dakota  State  Fair  made  the  boys'  and  girls' 
contests  a  special  feature  at  its  recent  meeting.  Three  hundred 
and  fifty  dollars  were  offered  in  cash  prizes,  the  largest  first 


88        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

prize  being  one  hundred  dollars.  The  contest  was  announced 
in  a  special  bulletin  containing  instructions  as  to  the  details  of 
preparation  for  the  contests   (129). 

One  of  the  most  popular  buildings  at  the  last  Minnesota 
State  Fair  was  the  Agricultural  Hall  Annex  which  was  devoted 
entirely  to  the  exhibits  in  agriculture,  household  arts,  and 
manual  training  of  the  ten  high  schools  receiving  state  aid  for 
teaching  these  subjects. 

The  Oklahoma  State  Fair  of  1910  arranged  for  a  school 
of  agriculture  to  be  held  on  its  grounds.  Each  county  is 
entitled  to  two  delegates,  one  hundred  and  fifty-four  boys 
being  provided  for.  "This  work  will  be  done  at  the  fair 
grounds.  The  boys  and  instructors  will  sleep  in  a  large  tent." 
A  portion  of  each  day  is  to  be  devoted  to  instruction,  lectures 
in  the  mornings  and  object-teaching  or  laboratory  work  in  the 
afternoons  (130).  A  similar  school  for  boys  is  conducted  by 
the  Illinois  State  Fair  (131). 

Contests,  for  example,  corn  contests,  are  held  in  some  states 
under  the  direction  of  the  state  office  of  agriculture.  Such 
contests  are  being  held  in  Missouri  this  year  all  over  the  state, 
and  a  Farm  Boys'  Encampment  is  conducted  under  the  same 
management.  In  South  Carolina  contests  have  been  held  through- 
out the  state  under  the  joint  direction  of  the  State  Department 
of  Agriculture  and  the  United  States  Demonstration  Work.  In 
the  state  contest  which  is  soon  to  take  place  over  three  thousand 
boys  are  enrolled.  The  winner  of  last  year's  contest,  Bascomb 
Usher,  raised  on  one  acre  one  hundred  and  fifty-two  and  one- 
half  bushels  of  com.  The  average  production  of  corn  per  acre 
for  the  entire  state  was  about  eighteen  bushels.  A  number  of 
other  southern  states  are  conducting  similar  co-operative  contests 
(see  chap.  xii). 

South  Carolina,  through  its  Department  of  Agriculture,  has 
been  aiding  the  practical  teaching  of  agriculture  in  a  few  high 
schools  by  maintaining  a  skilled  teacher  and  operating  a  farm 


STATE  ORGANIZATIONS  FOR  AGRICULTURE  89 

and  practice  garden  in  connection  with  the  school  (132).     The 
commissioner  says: 

This  has  been  in  the  nature  of  an  experiment,  but  we  have  gone  far 
enough  in  the  matter  to  see  that  admirable  results  may  be  obtained,  and 
at  a  very  minimum  of  cost.  The  only  cost,  in  fact,  to  us  is  the  salary  of 
the  man  nine  months  in  the  year.  The  land  is  furnished  by  the  patrons  of 
the  school,  as  are  also  the  work  animals,  implements,  fertilizers,  etc.,  and 
the  school  is  given  the  profits  from  the  farm.i 

These  are  typical  examples  of  the  work  of  various  state 
offices  of  agriculture  in  promoting  an  interest  in  agriculture  and 
rural  life  among  boys  and  girls.  Many  others  might  have 
been  given.  It  is  a  new  field  of  activity  for  these  offices,  and 
promises  much  if  organized  and  extended  so  as  to  co-operate 
with  other  educational  efforts.  Perhaps  the  greatest  value  of 
such  work  for  agricultural  education  to  the  public  schools  lies 
in  placing  the  stamp  of  official  approval  upon  this  kind  of 
education. 

In  many  states  practically  nothing  has  been  done  by  these 
offices,  and  in  none  more  than  a  beginning  of  what  might  be 
done.  The  state  and  county  fairs,  for  example,  offer  unusual 
educational  opportunities.  If  the  same  energy  now  expended  in 
managing  and  controlling  amusement-park  features  of  these  fairs 
(which  are  of  doubtful  value  at  best)  were  directed  toward 
helping  the  schools  of  rural  communities  there  might  be  a  great 
educational  gain  for  the  state  (133). 

STATE  farmers'  INSTITUTES 
The  farmers*  institute  movement  in  the  United  States  has  now  reached 
a  degree  of  importance  and  development  that  places  it  along  side  of  the 
leading  institutions  of  the  country  organized  in  the  interest  of  industrial 
education.  Forty-five  states  and  territories  held  institutes  in  1905,  aggre- 
gating 10,555  half-day  sessions,  which  were  attended  by  995,192  persons, 
chiefly  adults  (,134,  p.  7). 

The  growth  of  this  movement  may  be  seen  by  comparing 
the  above  simimary  for  1905  with  the  following  summary  for 
1908:  number  of   institutes   4,643;   half-day   sessions    13,056; 

'  Quoted  from  private  letter. 


90        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

attendance  2,098,268,  In  addition  to  the  regular  institutes 
included  in  the  above  a  number  of  special  institutes  were  held 
with  an  attendance  of  340,414,  which,  added  to  the  attendance 
at  the  regular  institutes,  make  a  total  of  2,438,682.  There  is 
no  record  of  attendance  of  732  meetings  of  women's  institutes, 
of  174  meetings  of  boys'  institutes,  or  of  several  other  meetings 
which  might  be  regarded  as  farmers'  institutes   (135). 

The  function  of  the  farmers'  institute  is  to  educate  the  people  on  their 
own  ground.  It  is  a  phase  of  extension  work  that  carries  education 
directly  to  the  localities  in  which  the  people  live.  It  deals  less  with  indi- 
vidual men  on  their  farms  than  with  small  communities  or  groups  of  men; 
it  therefore  has  the  opportunity  to  exert  great  influence  in  developing  the 
social  life  of  rural  neighborhoods  (122,  p,  462), 

With  these  aims  on  the  one  hand,  and  with  an  attendance 
of  over  two  million  on  the  other,  farmers'  institutes  become  a 
factor  in  rural  education  second  only  to  the  public  schools. 
Although  the  institutes  are  intended  for  adults  it  must  be 
remembered  that  adults  are  patrons  of  the  rural  schools,  and 
wherever  the  farmers'  institute  arouses  the  adult  population 
to  a  realization  of  a  need  for  better  schools,  improvement  in 
these  schools  is  likely  to  follow. 

In  1896  the  American  Association  of  Farmers'  Institute 
Workers  was  organized  and  has  held  annual  meetings  ever  since. 
This  association  is  a  sort  of  clearing-house  for  exchange  of 
ideas  and  methods,  and  is  intended  also  to  secure  a  more  or 
less  uniform  type  of  institute  in  the  several  states.  In  1898 
the  association  requested  the  secretary  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  at  Washington  to  arrange  for  a  division  in  con- 
nection with  the  department  to  be  known  as  the  Division  of 
Farmers'  Institutes.  This  request  was  subsequently  granted  by 
establishing  the  office  of  Farmers'  Institute  Specialist,^ 

The  general  policy  of  farmers'  institutes  is  influenced  greatly 
by  the  association  and  by  the  office  of  Farmers'  Institute  Spe- 
cialist.    At  the  meeting  for  1908,  the 

*  The  work  of  this  office  was  referred  to  in  chap.  i. 


STATE  ORGANIZATIONS  FOR  AGRICULTURE  91 

subjects  for  discussion  in  the  general  program  were  mainly  directed  toward 
defining  the  status  of  the  farmers'  institute  in  its  relation  to  other  forms 
of  agricultural  education.  The  points  brought  out  were  that  the  farmers' 
institute  occupies  the  position  of  field  agent  for  agricultural  education;  that 
it  provides  a  most  efficient  channel  for  carrying  agricultural  information 
directly  to  the  farmer  who  is  unable  to  leave  his  occupation  to  go  to  school ; 
and  that  it  should  broaden  its  work  until  it  embraces  other  more  advanced 
forms  of  educational  work  and  extend  its  efforts  until  all  rural  people 
have  full  opportunity  to  enjoy  its  benefits  (135,   p.  293). 

Farmers'  institute  workers  are  further  assisted  by  state  meet- 
ings where  they  gather  together  to  plan  the  year's  work.  Here 
the  policy  for  the  work  of  the  whole  state  is  determined.  In 
many  of  these  meetings  the  relation  of  the  institute  to  the 
public  schools  receives  attention,  and  methods  for  assisting  the 
introduction  of  agriculture  and  other  rural-life  subjects  into 
the  rural  schools  are  discussed. 

The  following  extracts  of  letters  from  some  state  directors 
or  superintendents  of  farmers'  institutes  will  indicate  more 
definitely  what  these  institutes  are  doing  in  this  matter : 

In  connection  with  the  Farmers'  Demonstration  Train  we  always  send 
preliminary  notice  to  the  schools  where  the  train  is  scheduled  to  stop, 
inviting  them  to  have  their  pupils  visit  the  train  (Cal.). 

At  our  annual  conference  of  institute  workers,  the  question  of  the 
relation  of  the  school  and  church  to  the  farm  and  rural  life  receives  due 
consideration.  The  result  is  that  an  atmosphere  favorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  schools  along  practical  lines  is  pretty  generally  diffused  (Ind.). 

The  farmers'  institute  lecturers  have  encouraged  institute  patrons  to 
insist  in  their  respective  counties  that  agriculture  be  taught  in  the  public 
schools  (Md.). 

Not  only  is  this  subject  discussed  by  many  of  the  lecturers,  but  at  a 
large  number  of  the  institutes  special  speakers  upon  this  and  allied  subjects 
are  provided  (Mich.), 

For  two  years  we  have  been  giving  lectures  in  agriculture  and  allied 
subjects  in  the  high  schools  of  the  state;  last  year  to  the  extent  of  eighty. 
Plans  are  nearly  perfected  for  increasing  this  line  of  work  the  coming 
season,  giving  lecture  courses  consisting  of  four  lectures  in  each  of  such 
schools  as  apply  for  them  (Mont.). 


92        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

We  have  several  speakers  who  lecture  before  evening  sessions  of  farm- 
ers' institutes  on  such  subjects  as:  agriculture  in  the  rural  schools,  domestic 
science  in  the  rural  schools,  value  of  agricultural  education,  etc.  (Neb.). 

Each  of  the  four  corps  of  institute  lecturers  is  accompanied  by  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  Educational  Department  who  arranges  for  special  sessions 
in  the  public  schools  in  connection  with  institutes  where  he  can  secure  co- 
operation of  the  local  school  authorities.  At  these  special  sessions  the 
farmers'  institute  lecturers  give  talks  on  elementary  agriculture  and  nature- 
study.  The  total  attendance  at  these  special  sessions  held  during  the  school 
periods  amounted  to  22,697  (N.Y.). 

When  we  are  holding  an  institute  in  a  town  we  very  often  send  the 
lecturers  to  the  schools  to  speak  to  the  school  children  on  certain  phases  of 
farm  life  (N.D.). 

No  instructions  are  given  institute  lecturers  regarding  this  work;  how- 
ever, at  many  institutes  teachers  and  pupils  are  called  to  the  meeting  and 
special  lectures  are  given  them  (Okla.). 

We  are  trying  to  give  a  good  deal  of  attention  to  the  introduction  of 
agricultural  education  in  the  public  schools.  I  have  attended  ten  teachers' 
institutes  during  the  summer  with  this  object  in  view,  speaking  at  some 
of  them  three  times,  and  I  think  the  subject  has  been  discussed  by  some 
person  in  every  institute  in  the  state  (S.D.). 

Our  farmers'  institute  instructors  do  what  they  can  to  promote  and 
encourage  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  the  rural  schools.  Many  of  them 
have  lectures  upon  this  subject  (W.Va.). 

For  the  last  twenty-four  years  a  great  deal  of  attention  has  been  given 
to  the  discussion  of  agricultural  education  in  the  public  schools  of  Wis- 
consin by  the  farmers'  institute  workers  of  this  state;  in  fact,  we  feel  that 
public  sentiment  among  farmers  has  been  developed  by  these  discussions 
until  Wisconsin  has,  we  think,  a  little  more  practical  agriculture  in  her 
schools,  from  the  rural  district  up  through  the  county  agricultural  schools 
and  the  agricultural  college,  than  has  any  other  state  in  the  Union  (Wis.). 

In  most  states  where  the  farmers'  institute  is  conducted  by 
the  agricultural  college  there  is  a  close  correlation  between  this 
department  and  that  of  agricultural  extension.  In  some  colleges 
they  are  practically  identical.  As  has  been  indicated  in  chap,  v, 
provision  is  made  by  several  colleges  for  extension  work  among 
the  schools.     Where  this  arrangement  obtains,  the  farmers'  insti- 


STATE  ORGANIZATIONS  FOR  AGRICULTURE  93 

tute  workers  merely  cooperate  with  those  engaged  in  the  work 
among  the  schools,  and  do  not  initiate  any  work  themselves. 

From  what  has  been  presented  concerning  the  organization 
and  work  of  the  farmers'  institutes  it  will  be  seen  that  they 
have  been  a  considerable  factor  in  the  movement  for  agricul- 
tural education  in  the  public  schools,  first,  by  arousing  favorable 
sentiment  among  the  farmers,  and  second,  by  direct  help  to 
teacher  and  pupils. 

While  these  institutes  will  doubtless  continue  to  encourage 
the  introduction  of  agriculture  into  the  public  schools  and  em- 
phasize the  importance  of  re-directing  rural  schools,  in  many 
states,  and  soon  in  all  the  agricultural  states,  the  demands  of 
the  rural  schools  for  help  along  industrial  lines  will  require 
some  special  attention  not  now  provided. 


CHAPTER  XI 

AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES 

The  development  of  agricultural  societies  may  be  divided 
into  four  periods:  (i)  from  1785  to  1850 — the  period  of  begin- 
nings; (2)  from  1850  to  1870 — the  period  of  agricultural  fairs; 
(3)  from  1870  to  1892 — ^the  period  of  great  organizations;  (4) 
from  1892  to  the  present — the  period  of  adjustment  (122,  p. 
291). 

FIRST  PERIOD 

The  first  period  in  its  relation  to  agricultural  education  is  an 
important  one,  particularly  in  its  historical  significance.  The  influ- 
ence of  these  early  societies  on  agricultural  education  is  perhaps 
greater  than  that  of  any  other  single  factor  contributing  to  its 
development.  The  idea  of  such  an  education  is  regarded  by 
some  as  originating  in  these  societies.  That  it  was  much  ex- 
ploited by  them  is  certainly  true.  The  idea  persisted  and  grew, 
and  may  be  followed  from  this  early  period  to  the  establishment 
of  land-grant  colleges.  The  idea  persists  today,  but  modified 
to  include  elementary  and  secondary  education. 

In  1785  the  Philadelphia  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agri- 
culture was  organized,  and  later  in  the  same  year  a  similar  society 
was  formed  at  Charleston,  S.C.  Within  the  following  decade  a 
number  of  other  societies  was  organized.  Among  the  members 
of  these  societies  were  many  prominent  men  such  as  George 
Washington,  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  Timothy  Pickering. 
These  men  were  also  interested  in  education.  It  is  not  strange 
that  the  two  interests  should  be  combined  in  their  minds  into 
the  idea  of  agricultural  education. 

Benjamin  Franklin  had  given  expression  to  this  idea  many 
years  before  the  founding  of  the  first  agricultural  society. 
Referring  to  the  education  of  the  youth  of  Pennsylvania  he  says : 

94 


AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES  95 

While  they  are  reading  natural  history  might  not  a  little  gardening, 
planting,  grafting,  inoculating  be  taught  and  practiced,  and  now  and  then 
excursions  made  to  the  neighboring  plantations  of  the  best  farms,  their 
methods  observed  and  reasoned  upon  for  the  information  of  youth,  the 
improvement  of  agriculture  being  useful  to  all  and  skill  in  it  no  disparage- 
ment to  any?   (122,  p.  361). 

This  idea  was  first  put  into  actual  practice  in  1792  when 
agriculture  became  a  subject  of  instruction  in  Columbia  College. 
This  was  brought  about  chiefly  through  the  agitation  of  the  New 
York,  and  other  agricultural  societies.  Another  example  of  the 
attitude  of  these  early  societies  toward  agricultural  education  is 
found  in  the  action  of  the  Philadelphia  Society  in  1794.  The 
society  appointed  a  committee  to  outline  a  plan  for  establishing 
a  "State  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agriculture,  connecting 
with  it  the  Education  of  Youth  in  the  knowledge  of  that  most 
important  Art  while  they  are  acquiring  other  useful  knowledge 
suitable  for  the  agricultural  citizens  of  the  State."  The  plan 
which  was  drawn  up  and  presented  to  the  society  includes  some 
very  definite  references  to  agricultural  education.  Agricultural 
information  was  to  be  disseminated  in  whatever  manner  the 
legislature  should  think  best,  "whether  by  endowing  professor- 
ships to  be  annexed  to  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  and  the 
College  of  Carlisle,  and  other  seminaries  of  learning,  or  for  the 
purpose  of  teaching  the  chemical  philosophy  and  elementary 
parts  of  the  theory  of  agriculture."  County  societies  were  to  be 
created  with  "county  schoolmasters"  as  secretaries ;  and  the  school- 
houses  the  places  of  meeting  and  the  repositories  of  their  trans- 
actions, models,  etc.  "The  legislature  may  enjoin  on  these  school- 
masters the  combination  of  the  subject  of  agriculture  with  other 
parts  of  education.  This  may  easily  be  effected  by  introducing, 
as  school  books,  those  on  this  subject,  and  thereby  making  it 
familiar  to  their  pupils"  (122,  p.  363).  The  fact  that  the  plan 
of  the  committee  was  rejected  does  not  alter  its  significance  in 
its  bearing  upon  subsequent  developments  in  agricultural  educa- 
tion. It  is  especially  noteworthy  that  the  plan  proposed  is  in 
harmony  with  some  present-day  practices :  the  rural  school  as  a 


96        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

community  center,  correlation  of  agriculture  with  other  school 
subjects,  and  agricultural  textbooks. 

During  this  entire  period  the  subject  of  agricultural  education 
was  much  discussed.  Various  plans  were  proposed  for  its  develop- 
ment. Some  provided  that  the  societies  themselves  should  organ- 
ize stock  companies  to  establish  schools  for  instruction  in  agri- 
cultural subjects.  Several  such  schools  were  started,  but  owing 
to  difficulties  (chiefly  financial)  they  were  not  successful.  These 
attempts  were  an  important  stage  in  the  evolution  of  the  agri- 
cultural college. 

Stock-company  plans  were  succeeded  by  others  involving  state 
or  federal  support.  The  agricultural  societies  representing  asso- 
ciated effort  were  finally  able  to  secure  the  attention  of  legis- 
lative bodies.  In  New  York  State,  for  example,  the  New  York 
State  Agricultural  Society  began  a  campaign  for  a  school  of 
agriculture  soon  after  the  date  of  its  organization  (1832), 
and  continued  it  until  1853  when  the  legislature  granted  a  char- 
ter for  such  an  institution.  The  founding  of  the  Agricultural 
College  of  Cornell  University  was  no  doubt  due  in  a  large 
measure  to  the  activity  of  the  New  York  State  Agricultural 
Society,  and  of  other  agricultural  societies  of  the  state. 

The  Michigan  State  Agricultural  Society  which  was  formed 
in  1849  immediately  set  to  work  to  secure  a  state  agricultural 
college.  Its  efforts  at  once  secured  the  attention  of  the  legis- 
lature. The  matter  was  brought  up  at  each  session  of  the 
legislature  until,  in  1855,  a  bill  authorizing  the  establishment  of 
the  State  Agricultural  College  of  Michigan  became  a  law. 

"The  Industrial  League  of  the  State  of  Illinois,"  chiefly 
composed  of  farmers,  had  much  to  do  with  the  passage  of  the 
Land  Grant  Act  of  1862.  This  League  was  an  outgrowth  of 
the  meeting  of  a  convention  held  at  Granville,  Putnam  County, 
Illinois,  November  18,  1851.  The  object  of  this  convention 
"was  to  take  into  consideration  such  means  as  might  be  deemed 
most  expedient  to  further  the  interests  of  the  agricultural  com- 
munity, and  particularly  to  take  steps  toward  the  establishment 


AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES  97 

of  aji  agricultural  university"  (136,  p.  20).  Jonathan  B.  Turner 
proposed  a  plan  at  this  meeting  which  included  "a  university 
for  industrial  classes  in  each  state  in  the  Union."  The  pla'h 
adopted  was  published  and  widely  circulated  throughout  the 
country.  Another  convention  was  held  at  Springfield,  Illinois, 
June  8,  1852.  At  this  convention  a  memorial  was  presented, 
containing,  among  other  things,  a  definite  plan  for  organizing 
agricultural  colleges :  "An  appropriate  endowment  of  universi- 
ties for  the  liberal  education  of  the  industrial  classes  in  their 
several  pursuits  in  each  state  in  the  Union"  (136,  p.  22).  A 
third  convention  was  held  at  Chicago,  November  24,  1852.  It 
was  decided  at  this  meeting  to  organize  "The  Industrial  League 
of  the  State  of  Illinois"  for  the  purpose  of  forwarding  the 
objects  of  the  convention,  one  object  being  "to  obtain  a  grant 
of  public  land  to  establish  and  endow  industrial  institutions  in 
each  and  every  state  in  the  Union.  "A  fourth  convention  was 
held  at  Springfield  on  January  4,  1853.  Here  a  final  plan  was 
approved  in  the  form  of  a  petition  to  Congress  (136,  pp.  24  and 
104).  Copies  were  distributed  to  the  various  other  agricultural 
and  industrial  societies  throughout  the  country.  These  societies 
were  asked  to  adopt  the  plan  and  urge  its  approval  by  Congress. 
The  campaign  for  passage  by  Congress  of  an  act  embodying 
this  plan  was  actively  continued  by  the  Industrial  League  of 
the  State  of  Illinois,  and  by  similar  organizations  in  other  states 
until  it  became  a  law,  July  2,  1862. 

The  activities  of  the  agricultural  societies  of  N'ew  York, 
Michigan,  and  Illinois  in  promoting  agricultural  education  is 
typical  of  what  was  accomplished  by  similar  societies  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, Connecticut,  and  other  states  during  this  period. 

SECOND  PERIOD 

In  1858  there  were  over  900  agricultural  and  horticultural 
societies  listed  at  the  Patent  Office,  and  in  1868  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  listed  1,350.  All  but  about  100  of  these  were 
organized  after  1849   (122,  p.  292). 


98        AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

The  chief  interest  of  most  of  these  societies  was  in  holding 
fairs.  In  many  ways  these  fairs  were  of  considerable  educa- 
tional value,  especially  in  diffusing  new  ideas,  in  furnishing  an 
opportunity  for  social  intercourse,  and  in  introducing  better  farm 
practice  and  new  types  of  farm  products.  Often  addresses  by 
prominent  speakers  were  provided  as  special  educational  features. 

On  the  whole  this  period  was  marked  by  a  great  development 
of  organized  effort,  including  associations  of  many  kinds,  and 
ranging  from  national  organizations  to  mere  local  farmers'  clubs. 

THIRD    PERIOD 

This  period  is  characterized  by  large  associations,  national  in 
scope.  It  represents  a  stage  in  development  when  agricultural 
people  began  to  recognize  the  importance  of  "getting  together," 
and  of  using  co-operative  means  for  securing  better  business 
and  educational  opportunities,  and  more  favorable  legisla- 
tion. This  was  undertaken  through  large  formal  organizations, 
through  co-operative  concerns  which  were  intended  to  do  away 
with  the  "middleman,"  through  activity  in  politics,  and  through 
education,  directly  by  means  of  colleges  and  other  schools,  and 
by  means  of  discussions  and  publications.  Several  large  organi- 
zations constituted  the  machinery  of  this  movement,  the  most 
important  of  which  were  the  Grange  and  the  Farmers*  Alliance. 

The  Grange  was  founded  in  1867,  and  became  a  national 
society  in  1873.^  It  is  a  very  complete  organization  with  the 
lodge  as  a  unit,  subordinate  to  the  County  Grange  which  is  sub- 
ordinate to  the  State  Grange,  this  in  turn  being  subordinate  to  the 
National  Grange.  The  purposes  are  fraternal,  social,  educational, 
political,  and  financial.  Educational  work  is  a  feature  of  each 
meeting,  a  certain  part  of  the  program  being  devoted  to  this 
subject.  Sometimes  the  educational  work  of  the  lodges  of  a 
whole  state  is  planned  definitely  by  one  of  the  state  officers,  the 
state  grand  lecturer.    The  meetings  of  the  lodge  are  often  held 

'  D.  W.  Aiken,  The  Grange— Its  Origin,  Progress  and  Purposes,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agric, 
Misc.  Ser.,  Spedal  Report  a;  Charles  W.  Pierson,  "Rise  of  the  Granger  Movement,"  Pop. 
Sci.  Mo.,  V,  32,  p.  199. 


AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES  99 

in  schoolhouses,  thus  making  the  school  property  a  community 
center  for  adults  as  well  as  children.  The  interest  of  the 
Grange  in  the  school  does  not  stop  with  the  use  of  the  school- 
house  as  a  meeting-place,  but  it  lends  its  support  to  all  measures 
intended  for  the  betterment  of  rural  education,  and  particularly 
to  those  involving  a  greater  use  of  country-life  subjects.  The 
Grange  was  for  a  time  a  very  powerful  society,  but  by  1880  its 
power  as  a  national  organization  was  lost.^  It  declined  rapidly 
both  in  membership  and  influence  until  ten  years  later  when  it 
began  to  revive  again. 

The  Farmers'  Alliance  was  somewhat  similar  to  the  Grange 
in  plan  and  purpose.  Its  activity  however  was  chiefly  directed 
toward  securing  better  legislation  favorable  to  rural  interests, 
mainly  financial.  Soon  after  the  formation  of  the  Populist  party 
little  was  left  of  the  Farmers'  Alliance  as  an  organization. 

FOURTH    PERIOD 

With  more  than  a  century  of  experience  agricultural  societies 
are  now  being  readjusted  to  secure  for  all  interests  of  agricul- 
ture and  rural  life  advantages  that  may  be  secured  only  through 
organized  effort.  They  may  be  classified  into  three  groups : 
national,  state,  and  local.  A  large  number  of  each  group  is 
devoted  to  some  special  agricultural  interest,  such  as  bee-keeping, 
apple  production,  sheep-breeding,  and  the  like,  almost  every  con- 
ceivable phase  of  agriculture  being  represented  by  an  organization. 

Of  the  national  societies  the  Grange  is  perhaps  the  most 
important.  Since  1890  it  has  emphasized  social  and  educational 
features,  and  has  recovered  from  the  decline  of  the  previous 
decade.  Its  interest  and  influence  in  educational  matters  are 
greater  than  ever  before. 

•  The  rise  and  decline  of  the  Grange  is  well  illustrated  by  the  number  of  granges  organ- 
ized each  year  in  Illinois  for  a  period  of  eight  years: 

In  i86g 2  In  1873 761 

In  1870 I  In  1874 704 

In  1871 S  In  187s SO 

In  1872 69  In  1876 27 

A.  E.  Paine,  'The  Granger  Movement  in  Illinois,"  Univ.  of  III.,  Bull.  V,  2,  No.  2  (1904), 
p.  10. 


lOO      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

There  are  now  over  seven  hundred  state  agricultural  societies 
most  of  which  are  devoted  to  special  interests.  In  some  states 
the  state  society  has  no  connection  with  local  societies,  but  in 
others  the  state  organization  is  made  up  of  representatives  from 
local  societies. 

The  latter  plan  is  well  illustrated  by  the  Michigan  State 
Association  of  Farmers'  Clubs.  In  1908  the  state  associa- 
tion included  one  hundred  and  twenty  clubs  from  thirty-two 
counties.  In  1908  these  clubs  had  a  membership  of  over  seven 
thousand.  The  association  holds  an  annual  meeting  in  which  a 
majority  of  the  associated  clubs  are  represented.  The  program 
consists  of  reports  of  various  clubs,  several  addresses  on  sub- 
jects of  general  interest  to  farmers,  and  reports  of  committees. 

A  good  example  of  the  work  of  a  local  club  is  shown  by  the 
following  synopsis  of  its  annual  report  to  the  association: 

The  club  is  eleven  years  old,  with  a  membership  of  71,  and  average 
attendance  of  50.  Annual  dues  are  ten  cents  per  member;  the  club  holds 
twelve  meetings  a  year,  all-day  meetings  from  October  to  April.  Men's 
meetings  in  February,  May;  temperance  meetings  in  February,  March; 
young  people's  meetings  in  April;  ladies*  meeting  in  May;  club  fair  in 
October;  picnic  in  August.  The  club  publishes  a  paper  called  the  Rural 
Grit  (137,  p.  is). 

The  addresses  at  the  annual  meetings  are  on  topics  of  general 
interest  to  farmers,  often  on  agricultural  education.  The  most 
important  committee  is  the  one  on  resolutions.  Some  recom- 
mendations directed  toward  legislation  are  usually  found  in  its 
reports. 

The  published  proceedings  of  the  various  agricultural  socie- 
ties contain  important  contributions  to  the  literature  of  agri- 
cultural education.  The  importance  lies  not  so  much  in  the  new 
points  of  view  or  new  ideas  presented  as  in  the  fact  that  these 
articles  indicate  the  attitude  of  the  most  progressive  farmers  on 
this  question.  The  Report  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  New 
Jersey  Horticultural  Society  for  1910  contains  a  discussion  of 
"What  Shall  We  Teach  the  Farmer's  Child?"  (138).  A  scheme 
is  proposed  for  dividing  the  school  year  into  more  equal  periods 


AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES  loi 

between  farm  practice  and  school  work.  The  difficulty  of  apply- 
ing such  a  plan  is  found  in  the  present  long  high-school  year 
and  short  vacation  period,  and  in  the  absence  of  instruction  in 
agricultural  subjects.  The  author  may  have  had  in  mind  some 
shop  work,  as  is  being  introduced  in  Cincinnati,  and  in  other 
places. 

The  idea  is  suggestive  of  possibilities  that  might  be  developed 
in  rural  schools  to  advantage,  provided  the  long  vacation  period 
were  spent  in  applying  the  scientific  principles  of  agriculture  to 
farm  practice.  The  boys  of  the  Baltimore  County  (Md.)  Agri- 
cultural High  School  carry  on  extensive  experiments  on  their 
home  farms  during  vacation  periods.  Their  work  is  inspected 
from  time  to  time  by  the  teacher  of  agriculture  in  the  high 
school,  the  teacher  being  employed  to  give  his  time  during  the 
entire  year  to  school  matters.  This  plan  has  been  in  operation 
only  one  year,  but  the  results  have  been  very  satisfactory.  Such 
an  arrangement  would  do  away  with  some  of  the  objections  to 
the  present  system  of  education  raised  by  the  above  paper,  that 
the 

high  schools  are  simply  feeding  the  boys  and  girls  to  universities  and  general 

colleges,  but  unfitting  them  for  the  practical  duties  of  life One  great 

trouble  with  farming  today  is  the  fact  that  for  half  a  century  or  more 
country  teachers  have  worn  the  label  and  wire  of  an  education  arranged 
for  a  town  school.  The  material  benefits  of  education,  such  as  they  are  in 
a  public  way,  and  the  public  spirit  of  it,  have  been  town  bred  and  built. 
One  great  reason  why  farming  of  late  years  has  become  more  hopeful  and 
prosperous  is  because  we  are  at  last  developing  a  definite  form  and  spirit 
of  farm  education. 

There  are  so  many  societies  publishing  proceedings  that  no 
further  reference  will  be  made  except  to  refer  to  the  fact  that  the 
discussions  appearing  in  these  proceedings  on  instruction  in 
agriculture  in  the  public  schools  usually  favor  such  instruction, 
but  not  always.  Occasionally  views  are  expressed  against  it. 
In  the  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  Horticultural  Society  for  1909 
we  find  an  example  of  the  latter  (139).  The  writer  reviews 
the  conditions  of  the  Iowa  rural  schools.     His  own  county  has 


I02      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

208  rural  schools.  He  regards  the  introduction  of  agricultural 
instruction  in  these  schools  as  impossible,  even  if  desirable.  He 
would  improve  the  teaching  of  these  schools  by  placing  more 
emphasis  on  the  "three  R's."  He  says,  "the  most  persistent  and 
able  advocates  of  agriculture  in  the  public  schools  are  teachers 
and  professors  in  our  state  and  other  colleges."  This  is  not  an 
isolated  example  of  the  conservative  attitude  of  the  farmer 
toward  education.  Similar  views  are  held  in  every  farming 
community  in  the  country.  The  little  one-room  school  is  re- 
garded as  necessary  for  any  scheme  of  rural  education.  If  the 
scheme  does  not  fit  into  the  existing  system  it  is  unworthy. 
Much  of  the  opposition  to  consolidation  is  no  doubt  due  to  the 
reluctance  of  abandoning  the  single-room  school,  and  to  the 
inability  to  see  how  a  readjustment  of  school  affairs  can  be 
brought  about. 

The  sentence  just  quoted  referring  to  "teachers  and  pro- 
fessors" advocating  agricultural  instruction  shows  a  little  of  the 
resentment  that  has  grown  up  lately  in  several  parts  of  the 
country  toward  the  activity  of  those  interested  in  the  promo- 
tion of  agricultural  education  in  the  elementary  and  secondary 
schools.  A  prominent  agricultural  journal  has  recently  cast 
some  reflection  on  the  motives  of  some  of  the  men  now  engaged 
in  agricultural  extension  among  public  schools,  intimating  that 
the  matter  is  being  agitated  for  the  benefit  of  agricultural  col- 
leges. The  editor  finds  some  sympathy  among  his  readers,  as 
evidenced  by  a  protest  from  one  subscriber  against  so  much 
space  being  g^ven  to  school  matters,  and  so  little  being  given  to 
the  discussion  of  sheep-killing  dogs ! 

Particular  mention  should  be  made  of  the  work  of  the 
Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society  in  its  relation  to  the  school- 
garden  movement  (140).  Soon  after  Henry  L.  Clapp  intro- 
duced school  gardening  into  the  George  Putnam  School  of  Boston, 
the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society  began  to  encourage  the 
establishment  of  school  gardens  in  other  places  in  New  England 
by  offering  prizes  for  the  best  gardens  entering  competition,  and 


AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES  103 

by  giving  prominence  to  the  subject  in  its  published  proceedings. 
Since  1893,  one  feature  of  its  annual  meeting  is  the  session 
devoted  to  hearing  reports  on  school  gardens.  The  growth  of 
the  school-garden  movement  of  the  United  States  owes  much 
to  this  society. 

The  following  are  a  few  extracts  from  letters  written  by 
officers  of  some  agricultural  societies  in  answer  to  an  inquiry 
as  to  what  their  societies  are  now  doing  toward  promoting 
agricultural  education.  These  are  typical  expressions,  and  are 
taken  at  random  from  a  number  of  replies : 

Our  meetings  are  always  public  and  we  invite  teachers,  students,  and  the 
general  public  to  attend  the  sessions.  We  have  not  taken  any  definite  steps 
toward  the  teaching  of  agriculture  or  horticulture  in  the  schools,  although 
whenever  occasion  ofifers,  we  are  glad  to  say  a  word  favoring  the  move- 
ment (Vermont). 

We  have  held  sessions  at  the  State  Normal  Schools  and  have  had  ad- 
dresses that  we  thought  would  be  of  value  to  prospective  teachers  (New 
Jersey). 

We  think  it  is  an  important  subject  and  hope  to  see  more  of  at  least 
the  rudiments  of  horticulture  taught  in  the  schools  soon  (Kansas). 

We  have  papers  and  discussions  in  nearly  every  volume  we  publish  re- 
garding horticultural  subjects,  bearing  on  their  relation  to  the  public  schools 
(Illinois). 

We  have  undertaken  recently  the  task  of  improving  in  some  measure  the 
grounds  surrounding  the  rural  schools  of  the  state.  We  have  realized  for 
years  the  deplorable  conditions  in  this  respect;  the  lack  of  adequate  play- 
grounds; the  lack  of  order  and  even  common  cleanliness,  the  utter  lack  of 
any  decoration,  and  other  things  too  numerous  to  mention.  We  are  feeling 
our  way  carefully  and  so  far  have  but  little  to  report.  We  have  selected 
seven  districts  widely  separated  and  for  these  schools  we  furnish  land- 
scape plans  and  trees  and  shrubs  to  plant  the  same.  We  also  furnish 
expert  superintendence  and  inspection.  So  far  the  work  has  been  very  dis- 
couraging on  account  of  the  lack  of  co-operation  or  even  friendly  spirit  on 
the  part  of  school  officers  and  teachers.  We  hope,  however,  for  better 
things  and  intend  to  keep  on  (Wisconsin). 

The  brief  account  just  given  of  agricultural  societies  is  suffi- 
cient to  indicate  at  least  some  of  their  most  important  relations  to 


I04      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

agricultural  education,  and  to  impress  upon  the  student  of  rural 
education  the  value  of  their  influence  in  any  movement  affecting 
the  country  schools.  Being  composed  of  representative  mem- 
bers of  the  very  communities  that  are  supposed  to  be  benefited  by 
improved  rural  education,  their  point  of  view  in  educational 
matters  must  be  considered  in  any  plans  to  bring  about  better 
rural-school  conditibns  and  their  co-operation  is  needed  for  an 
attempt  to  carry  out  these  plans. 


CHAPTER  XII 
BOYS'  AGRICULTURAL  CLUBS 

The  actual  introduction  of  agricultural  subjects  into  the  public 
schools  has  developed  along  two  lines,  one  indirect  and  informal, 
the  other  direct  and  formal.  They  may  be  regarded  as  two 
stages  of  one  development,  for  experience  seems  to  indicate  that 
creating  an  interest  informally  by  means  of  boys'  agricultural 
clubs  is  often,  if  not  always,  the  most  successful  method  of 
introducing  the  study  of  agriculture  into  the  schools  of  a  com- 
munity. 

Indeed,  in  many  places  where  formal  instruction  has  failed 
boys'  clubs  have  been  a  great  success.  This  is  well  illustrated 
in  Louisiana.  In  that  state,  although  the  teaching  of  agricul- 
ture has  been  required  since  1898,  it  has  not  received  much 
serious  attention  in  the  elementary  schools.  But  boys'  clubs  are 
being  organized  in  every  parish  in  the  state,  one  parish  school 
boys'  club,  for  example,  enrolling  during  the  present  year  555 
members.  This  form  of  agricultural  instruction  is  extending 
rapidly  over  the  entire  country,  and  is  becoming  a  very  impor- 
tant extension  work  in  education  as  well  as  in  agriculture.  It 
tends  to  ally  itself  more  and  more  with  the  public  schools,  until 
finally  some  more  or  less  formal  instruction  becomes  a  regular 
part  of  the  school  work. 

Thus  in  Ohio  the  state  superintendent  of  agricultural  extension  work 
writes  that  most  boys'  and  girls'  club  activities  are  now  conducted  as  a  part 
of  the  school  work  and  that  agricultural  clubs  as  such  are  becoming  a  thing 
of  the  past,  so  that  no  separate  records  or  statistics  are  now  generally 
kept  in  the  state  (141,  p.  12). 

Two  good  accounts  of  the  agricultural  club  movement  have 
been  published  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
one  tracing  its  development  to  1904  (61),  the  other  from  1904 
to  1910  (141).     The  following  discussion  will  therefore  be  con- 


io6      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

fined  chiefly  to  the  present  status  of  the  movement  with  typical 
examples  of  successful  work,  and  to  the  reaction  of  the  agri- 
cultural clubs  on  rural  education. 

Various  agencies  have  taken  the  initiative  in  starting  this  movement  under 
particular  local  conditions,  but  the  inspiration  for  state-wide  activity  in  these 
lines  has  generally  come  from  some  individual  or  official  source  connected 
with  the  state  department  of  education,  the  state  agricultural  college,  or  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  In  the  absence  of  such  initiative 
the  work  has  sometimes  begun  in  the  zeal  and  wisdom  of  some  county 
officer  or  association,  as  the  county  superintendent  of  schools,  the  farmers' 
institute  society,  the  county  fair  association,  or  teachers'  association,  the 
Grange  organization,  or  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association.  Experience 
has  shown  that  the  work  has  always  been  most  permanent  and  productive 
when  it  has  resulted  in  a  definite  local  organization,  preferably  under  the 
leadership  of  the  county  school  superintendent  (141,  p.  7). 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  work  of  the  state 
and  college  extension  departments,  of  state  departments  of  edu- 
cation, and  of  other  agencies  in  the  organization  of  these  clubs 
(37»  39,  41,  43,  61,  142). 

During  the  present  year  (1911)  this  work  has  been  extended, 
and  is  becoming  better  organized.  In  1909  there  were  clubs  in 
twenty-eight  states  with  a  total  membership  of  approximately 
150,000.  During  the  present  year  many  new  clubs  have  been 
formed,  and  the  membership  in  many  of  those  already  organized 
has  increased.  An  instance  of  the  latter  is  found  in  the  increase 
in  membership  of  one  club  from  17  in  1909  to  555  in  19 10.  In 
the  above  estimate  for  1909  several  states  that  now  have  clubs  are 
not  included.  For  example,  Kansas  has  one  or  more  clubs  in 
each  county,  with  a  total  membership  of  more  than  5,000.  The 
eleven  southern  states  that  had  a  membership  of  about  13,000 
in  1909  have  this  year  nearly  50,000  enrolled.  The  total  mem- 
bership of  1 910  for  the  entire  country  may  conservatively  be 
estimated  at  more  than  300,000. 

The  most  important  recent  development  is  that  of  the  Boys' 
Com  Club  work  in  the  southern  states.  This  work  was  under- 
taken by  representatives  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Plant 


BOYS'  AGRICULTURAL  CLUBS  107 

Industry  through  county  superintendents  of  education  four 
years  ago.  Three  years  ago  it  was  extended  in  a  few  counties 
of  the  Gulf  states  where  the  boll  weevil  was  damaging  cotton 
crops.  At  the  beginning  of  1909  a  systematic  plan  was  under- 
taken to  organize  boys'  com  clubs  in  a  few  counties  in  each 
of  the  southern  states.  There  were  enrolled  12,400  boys. 
During  19 10  in  response  to  further  demands  the  organizations 
have  been  extended  into  nearly  600  counties,  with  a  total  enrol- 
ment of  46,225  boys.  Although  no  statistical  summary  of  the 
work  has  been  issued,  a  number  of  reports  have  been  received 
by  the  department  which  show  excellent  work.  In  one  county  in 
Mississippi  48  boys  produced  an  average  yield  of  92  bushels  per 
acre;  20  boys  in  one  county  of  South  Carolina  made  1,700 
bushels  of  corn  on  20  acres.  Another  club  of  142  boys  produced 
an  average  of  62  bushels  to  the  acre,  several  going  above  100, 
and  two  or  three  above  150  bushels.^ 

The  Boys'  Corn  Club  work  is  the  Junior  Department  of 
the  Government  Demonstration  Work  now  being  carried  on  in 
all  the  southern  states.  The  results  of  the  boys'  work  have  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  the  entire  country.  Considerable  promi- 
nence was  given  to  it  by  the  public  press  in  1909,  but  much 
more  to  the  results  of  1910,  particularly  to  the  remarkable 
achievement  of  Jerry  Moore  of  Winona,  S.C,  a  boy  not  fifteen 
years  old,  who  produced  228^  bushels  of  com  on  one  acre  of 
land,  this  being  the  second  largest  yield  per  acre  in  the  history 
of  com  production. 2 

The  crowning  event  of  the  work  of  1910  was  a  visit  to 
Washington  on  December  12,  19 10,  of  the  prize  winners  from 
eleven  southern  states.  They  were  awarded  diplomas  of  merit 
by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  presented  to  the  President  of 
the  United  States,  and  personally  conducted  by  O.  B.  Martin, 

'The  above  facts  were  ftimished  in  a  letter  from  O.  B.  Martin,  government  assistant  in 
charge  of  Boys'  Demonstration  Work.  A  full  account  of  this  work  has  since  been  published 
(is). 

"Results  of  1909:  Youth's  Companion,  April  10,  igio;  Results  of  1910:  Associated  Press 
account,  Chicago  Record-Herald,  December  11  and  18,  1910. 


lo8      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

assistant  in  charge  of  the  Junior  Demonstration  Work,  over  the 
city  of  Washington,  visiting  all  places  of  interest. 

The  relation  of  this  work  to  the  schools  is  indicated  by  the 
following  extracts  from  directions  for  organization  and  instruc- 
tion sent  out  by  the  department: 

Where  this  work  is  being  introduced  in  a  county,  the  county  superin- 
tendent of  education  and  teachers  can  reach  the  boys  in  all  sections  of  the 
county  more  quickly  and  more  effectively  than  any  other  agency.  The 
superintendent  can  explain  the  plan  to  the  teachers,  and  they  can  explain 
it  to  the  boys  and  secure  the  names  of  all  the  boys  who  will  agree  to  plant 

one  acre   of   corn Just  as   soon  as  the  names   of   all   the  boys   are 

assembled  in  the  office  of  the  county  superintendent  of  education,  duplicate 
lists  should  be  sent  to  Dr.  S.  A.  Knapp,  Washington,  D.C.,  who  has  charge 
of  the  Farmers'  Co-operative  Demonstration  Work.  These  boys  will  from 
time  to  time  receive  circulars  of  instruction  and  information  in  regard  to 
preparation,  fertilization,  cultivation,  seed  selection,  etc.  These  circulars 
furnish  excellent  subject-matter  for  discussion  at  a  club  meeting,  or  for  a 
lesson  in  school.  They  lead  to  further  study  of  farmers'  bulletins  and 
books.  A  boy  will  profit  much  from  such  lessons,  discussions,  and  books, 
because  he  is  making  practical  application  of  the  principles  taught.  He 
learns  scientific  agriculture  because  he  needs  it,  and  not  because  it  is  scien- 
tific  The  object  of  the  Boys'  Demonstration  Work  is  the  same  as  that 

among  men,  namely,  better  methods  of  farming  and  greater  yields  at  less 
cost.  Many  of  the  boys  in  the  clubs  who  begin  to  study  agriculture  in  this 
way  will  continue  the  study  in  agricultural  colleges;  others  will  continue 
such  efforts  on  their  farms,  and  all  of  them  will  make  useful  and  more 
effective  citizens  .* 

The  organization  of  the  clubs  in  various  states  differs  some- 
what in  details,  but  in  general  there  is  a  close  co-operation 
between  the  state  departments  of  education  and  the  state  agri- 
cultural college.  A  good  example  of  a  state  organization  is  the 
Farm-Life  Club  Movement  in  Alabama: 

The  leading  objects  of  the  Farm-Life  Club  Movement  are  educational 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  our  desire  to  make  this  movement  have  a  close 
and  vital  connection  with  the  work  of  the  county  superintendents  of  educa- 
tion, the  teachers,  and  the  schools  of  the  state.  There  are  many  important 
educational  problems  in  Alabama  today,  but  the  largest  one  is  the  question 

'From  mimeograph  directions  sent  out  by  O.  B.  Martin,  assistant  in  charge  of  Boys' 
Demonstration  Work,  June  i,  1910. 


BOYS'  AGRICULTURAL  CLUBS  109 

of  better  farming.  In  beginning  the  work  in  a  county  we  first  secure  co- 
operation of  the  superintendent  and  through  him  interest  the  teachers.  The 
work  is  discussed  at  a  teachers'  institute  and  later  a  letter  is  mailed  request- 
ing each  teacher  to  interest  the  boys  in  his  school  and  his  community  in  this 
work.  The  names  of  the  boys  are  sent  to  the  county  superintendent  by  the 
teachers. 

This  work  furnishes  the  greatest  opportunity  yet  launched  for  the  county 
superintendents  and  teachers  to  be  of  invaluable  service  to  the  people  in 
arousing  interest  in  better  farming  and  in  improved  agriculture. 

The  ultimate  purpose  of  the  work  is  to  aid  the  great  movement  for 
better  farming  all  along  the  lines,  and  to  encourage  the  boy  to  get  an  edu- 
cation in  agriculture  and  to  remain  on  the  farm. 

The  work  in  Alabama  has  been  in  progress  scarcely  a  year  and  the 
results  are  very  encouraging  indeed.  At  present  the  work  has  been  started 
in  about  17  counties  in  the  state.  There  is  a  total  of  approximately  2,000 
boys  listed  in  the  work.  There  have  been  raised  locally  among  merchants, 
bankers,  and  other  public-spirited  people  over  $2,000  in  prizes.  In  addition 
to  this  the  state  fairs  in  Birmingham  and  Montgomery  are  offering  a  total 
of  about  $500  for  the  boys  in  the  com  clubs.  After  making  these  exhibits 
at  the  state  fairs  the  best  of  these  will  be  carried  to  the  National  Corn  Show. 

It  has  been  my  pleasure  during  the  last  month  to  hold  boys'  meetings 
in  several  counties  and  to  visit  a  large  number  of  individual  acres  of 
corn.  The  yield  in  a  great  many  cases  is  very  remarkable.  For  example, 
one  boy's  acre  of  corn  will  yield  at  least  65  bushels  of  corn-,  and  in  addition 
to  the  corn  there  will  be  enough  snap  beans  and  corn  middles  to  pay  all 
the  expenses  for  making  the  corn,  including  rent  of  land  and  interest  on 
investment.  I  quote  below  from  a  letter  recently  received  from  a  gentleman 
who  lives  in  a  community  where  a  club  has  been  organized :  "Some  of  the 
boys  are  going  to  make  75  and  85  bushels  per  acre,  and  some  are  going  to 
make  as  much  as  100  bushels."  Another  letter  from  a  business  man  will 
give  some  idea  as  to  how  the  business  men  regard  the  work:  "I  think  the 
Boys'  Corn  Club  has  worked  wonders  in  the  cultivation  of  corn  in  this  state. 
I  have  never  seen  as  much  enthusiasm  among  the  old  farmers  as  now  pre- 
vails, and  I  feel  certain  that  the  Boys'  Corn  Club  is  largely  responsible 
for  it." 

At  a  meeting  held  in  northern  Alabama  I  asked  some  of  the  boys  to 
give  me  an  idea  as  to  the  outlook  of  their  corn  crop.  One,  in  making  a 
report  of  his  work,  said :  "Every  farmer  in  a  radius  of  two  miles  of  my 
acre  has  visited  my  com  and  said,  'If  you  make  35  bushels  of  corn  on  this 
acre  we  are  going  to  follow  your  method.' "  Prospects  were  good  for  a 
yield  of  more  than  50  bushels  on  this  acre.     The  father  of  this  boy  said. 


no      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

"I  have  a  special  acre  myself  and  do  not  propose  to  have  my  boy  beat  me 
raising  corn." 

This  movement  is  not  a  question  of  adding  new  duties  to  the  county 
superintendent  and  teachers  without  additional  pay,  but  a  question  of  oppor- 
tunity and  service.  No  movement  has  yet  been  projected  where  superin- 
tendents of  education  and  teachers  may  be  of  greater  service  to  the  people 
than  in  the  organization  of  the  Farm-Life  clubs.  This  plan  also  furnishes 
the  best  method  yet  devised  of  bringing  together  in  harmonious  co-operation 
all  the  interests  looking  to  better  education  and  better  farming.  In  this 
work  the  county  superintendents,  the  teachers,  the  merchants,  the  newspapers, 
the  State  College  of  Agriculture,  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture,  and 
the  State  Department  of  Education  can  all  work  together  for  the  common 
good.* 

Another  important  phase  of  the  agricultural-club  idea  is 
being  developed  by  the  Farmers'  Institute  Specialist  of  the  Office 
of  Experiment  Stations  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.  It  is  known  as  Farmers'  Institutes  for  Young 
People.  The  following  statement  in  regard  to  these  institutes 
will  indicate  the  object  and  character  of  the  work  undertaken: 

In  order,  therefore,  that  opportunity  to  become  acquainted  with  agri- 
cultural operations  may  be  given  to  those  who  have  left  the  public  school 
and  from  whose  ranks  the  future  farmers  and  their  wives  must  be  supplied, 
the  farmers'  institutes  in  several  states  have  organized  and  are  now  con- 
ducting what  is  known  as  "institutes  for  young  people."  The  majority  of 
these  are  not  institutes  in  the  sense  in  which  the  work  of  the  farmers' 
institute  has  come  to  be  defined.  They  are  in  reality  boys'  and  girls'  clubs 
conducted  in  the  same  manner  as  those  operated  by  the  public  schools 

Because  of  the  fundamental  difficulty  in  securing  teachers  capable  of 
giving  vocational  training  and  instruction  in  agriculture  in  the  rural  schools, 
and  from  the  fact  that  after  the  scholars  leave  school  no  provision  has 
been  made  for  giving  them  the  opportunity  to  receive  such  instruction,  the 
farmers'  institute  has  undertaken  the  training  in  agriculture  of  rural  chil- 
dren after  leaving  school.  In  doing  this  it  has  found  it  necessary  to  drop 
from  its  system  of  instruction  the  purely  educational  feature  and  to  devote 
itself  strictly  to  giving  vocational  instruction.  Such  studies  and  practice, 
therefore,  as  the  institute  utilizes  have  in  view  the  perfecting  of  the  indi- 
vidual in  his  vocation.  The  institute  system,  therefore,  partakes  more 
nearly  than  any  other  of  the  trade-school  method,  and  is  intended  for  youths 

*  From  a  letter  written  by  L.  N.  Duncan,  U.S.  demonstrator  for  Alabama,  and  professor 
of  school  agrictilture,  Alabama  State  Agricultural  College. 


BOYS'  AGRICULTURAL  CLUBS  iii 

above  14  years  of  age.  It  will  become  the  connecting  link  between  the 
agricultural-club  movement  on  the  one  hand  and  the  regular  farmers'  insti- 
tutes for  adults  on  the  other  (143). 

In  1909,  20  States  and  territories  are  reported  to  have  held 
institutes  for  young  people.  This  system  seems  to  be  the  best 
organized  in  Indiana,  where  about  one-third  of  the  counties 
have  such  institutes  with  an  enrolment  of  over  12,000,  The 
young  people's  institutes  are  held  at  the  same  time  as  the  farm- 
ers' institutes  but  in  separate  sessions.  The  public  is  interested 
as  indicated  by  liberal  contributions,  one  county  appropriating, 
in  1909,  $1,000  for  this  work. 

The  extension  department  of  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural 
College  is  just  introducing  a  correspondence  school  in  connec- 
tion with  its  young  people's  extension  work.  The  object  of  this 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  young  people's  institute,  being  designed 
to  help  boys  and  girls  who  have  been  compelled  to  leave  school. 

The  boys'  clubs  of  Kansas,  whose  work  thus  far  has  been 
almost  wholly  confined  to  corn  contests,  are  now  being  organized 
on  a  somewhat  different  basis.  The  plan  follows  that  of  the  Boy 
Scouts  of  America  and  the  clubs  are  known  as  the  "Rural-Life 
Scouts,"  Although  just  started,  considerable  interest  is  being 
shown  in  these  clubs.  The  leaders  are  generally  principals  of 
village  schools  or  pastors  of  village  churches.  In  counties  where 
there  is  a  Y,M,C,A.  secretary,  the  organizations  are  affiliated 
with  the  Y.M.CA,  work. 

The  county  superintendent  of  education  and  his  teachers 
have  been  an  important  factor  in  making  boys'  clubs  a  success, 
whether  under  the  auspices  of  the  Government  Demonstration 
Work,  state  agricultural  colleges,  or  state  departments  of  educa- 
tion. The  work  in  large  units,  state  or  sectional,  is  really  made 
possible  by  successful  work  carried  out  by  county  superintend- 
ents of  schools  or  teachers  in  the  various  parts  of  the  country.  It 
may  be  of  interest  at  this  point  to  give  somewhat  in  detail  a 
concrete  example  of  how  a  county  superintendent  of  education 


112      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

went  about  organizing  successful  boys'  agricultural  clubs  in  his 
own  county. 

The  county  superintendent  of  Delaware  County,  Iowa,  began 
to  organize  boys'  clubs  six  years  ago,  holding  township  meetings 
where  the  boys  brought  corn  selected  from  their  fathers'  seed 
corn.  The  meetings  were  addressed  by  an  expert,  on  "What 
Constitutes  Good  Seed  Com."  This  was  accompanied  by  demon- 
strations from  samples  of  poor  and  good  ears.  The  corn  brought 
by  the  boys  was  then  judged  and  commented  upon  by  the  expert. 
The  superintendent  then  distributed  seed  com  which  he  had 
bought  for  this  purpose.  The  year  following  the  boys  came 
together  in  a  contest  showing  the  results  obtained  from  the  corn 
distributed  the  year  before.  This  work  was  continued  through 
the  next  year,  except  that  the  boys  selected  their  own  seed  com 
from  their  fathers'  com.  A  short  course  in  agriculture  was 
held  at  Manchester,  the  county  seat,  which  about  sixty  boys 
attended.  The  com  clubs  continued  to  grow  in  interest  from 
year  to  year  until  most  of  the  boys  were  as  good  as,  or  even  better 
judges  of  com  than,  their  fathers.  Last  year  the  work  was  varied 
by  using  oats  instead  of  corn.  The  superintendent  purchased 
forty  bushels  of  Canadian  oats,  and  distributed  the  seed  among 
the  boys  of  the  county.  At  the  close  of  the  season  a  contest 
was  held  at  which  the  results  of  the  season's  work  were  shown. 
The  experiment  was  watched  with  much  interest  throughout  the 
county,  and  the  farmers  were  eager  to  purchase  seed  from  the 
boys  for  their  own  farms.  In  one  year  the  value  of  Canadian 
oats  for  Delaware  County  was  demonstrated  by  the  boys,  and 
oat  production  in  the  county  was  greatly  improved. 

All  this  was  extra  school  work,  but  the  superintendent  made 
good  use  of  the  interest  thus  aroused  to  help  and  improve  the 
regular  school  work.  Raising  corn  and  oats  became  subjects  of 
compositions,  references  to  bulletins  and  books  were  used  as 
reading  lessons,  and  estimates  of  cost  and  yield  furnished  mate- 
rial for  arithmetic.  By  means  of  printed  instructions  sent  to 
teachers  from  time  to  time,  the  formal  work  of  the  schools  be- 
came enlivened  and  strengthened  by  its  practical  application. 


BOYS'  AGRICULTURAL  CLUBS  113 

The  work  in  Delaware  County  is  a  typical  example  of 
how  the  education  of  a  county  or  township  system  may  be 
redirected  by  means  of  boys'  clubs.  Springfield  Township, 
Ohio  (142),  Keokuk  (61)  and  Page  (144)  counties,  Iowa, 
Natchitoches  Parish,  Louisiana,  Winnebago  County,  Illinois 
(145,  146),  Wexford  County,  Michigan,  and  many  other  places 
might  be  mentioned  where  boys'  agricultural  clubs  have  not  only 
been  the  means  of  improving  school  conditions  but  by  their 
success  have  led  to  similar  work  being  introduced  in  other 
places. 

Although  not  connected  in  any  way  with  the  public  schools, 
the  work  of  W.  B.  Otwell,  editor  of  the  OtwelVs  Farmer  Boy, 
Carlinville,  111.,  deserves  special  mention.  Mr.  Otwell  is  chiefly 
responsible  for  the  beginning  of  the  state-wide  development  of 
boys'  com  clubs  in  Illinois,  and  had  charge  of  their  exhibit  at 
the  St.  Louis  Exposition,  where  1,250  boys'  exhibits  received 
awards.  By  means  of  his  paper  he  is  interesting  a  large  number 
of  boys  of  the  Middle  West.  He  conducted  in  1910  a  corn  con- 
test in  which  25,000  boys  were  competing.^  Another  feature  of 
his  boys'  club  is  an  annual  encampment  for  those  who  can  attend, 
for  the  purpose  of  agricultural  study. 

In  order  to  give  description  in  sufficient  detail,  the  foregoing 
discussion  of  boys'  agricultural  clubs  has  been  limited  to  a  few 
typical  examples  of  what  is  now  actually  being  accomplished. 
References  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  to  the  public  inter- 
est in  the  clubs  and  to  their  influence  upon  the  public  schools. 

It  was  the  intention  in  preparation  of  this  chapter  to  include 
a  fuller  discussion  of  the  relation  of  this  movement  to  rural 
education  than  space  will  permit.  Opinions  have  been  gathered 
from  a  number  of  state  superintendents,  and  from  others  in- 
terested in  rural  education  as  to  the  reaction  of  the  agricultural 
club  movement  upon  the  rural  schools.  These  opinions  are  well 
summed  up  in  the  following: 

Keeps  boys  in  school  longer;  gives  teacher  greater  influence  and  power; 
convinces   farmers   that  school  people   want  to   and  can   be  useful   to  the 

*  OtwelVs  Farmer  Boy,  Carlinville,  HI.,  December,  1910. 


114      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

farming  interests,  and  tends  to  make  the  school  the  center  of  community 
life;  stirs  farmers  to  greater  endeavor  and  to  better  methods  of  farming,  and 
increases  general  interest  in  agriculture  and  returns. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  contribution  that  these  clubs  are 
now  making  to  agricultural  education  in  the  public  schools  is 
the  recognition  by  the  patrons  of  the  direct  value  in  dollars 
and  cents  that  such  instruction  has,  a  recognition  which  will  lead 
to  better  support  of  the  schools  by  the  community  and  greater 
interest  in  them. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
ELEMENTARY  AND   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

One  of  the  most  important  recent  tendencies  in  education  is 
the  redirection  of  schools  of  a  community  in  terms  of  the  daily 
welfare  of  its  people.  For  a  rural  community  such  redirection 
must  be  largely  in  terms  of  agriculture  and  of  other  country- 
life  interests.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  so  much  emphasis  is 
placed  upon  agriculture  as  a  means  of  increasing  the  efficiency 
of  rural  schools. 

When  this  idea  began  to  express  itself  in  practice  in  rural 
communities  the  elementary  school  was  the  first  to  receive  at- 
tention. But  age  of  pupils,  many  grades  in  one  room,  lack  of 
properly  qualified  teachers,  and  various  other  limitations  have 
led  many  to  doubt  the  wisdom  of  this  selection.  The  results 
of  introducing  agriculture  as  a  school  subject  into  the  elementary 
schools  have  thus  far  not  been  entirely  satisfactory.  Neverthe- 
less adjustments  are  taking  place,  so  that  agriculture,  not  as 
a  systematized  subject  of  instruction  but  in  certain  of  its  nature- 
study  aspects,  will  no  doubt  find  an  important  place.  About 
all  that  may  reasonably  be  expected  of  agriculture  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  is  to  interest  the  children  in  country-life  sub- 
jects so  that  they  may  know  the  common  birds,  insects,  trees, 
weeds;  the  meaning  of  some  of  the  best  farm  practices,  such 
as  selecting  and  testing  seed,  how  the  soil  holds  water  and  means 
of  preventing  its  loss,  care  of  milk  and  value  of  its  fat  content, 
etc. ;  and  through  such  studies  to  lead  the  children  to  appreciate 
the  fact  that  there  is  something  worth  while  in  the  immediate 
world  in  which  they  live. 

The  rural  high  school  is  now  being  recognized  as  the  best 
place  below  the  college  for  instruction  in  agriculture.  Such 
a  high  school  is  closely  related  to  rural  education  in  two  ways : 
one  in  the  adjustment  of  its  own  work  to  the  industrial  and 


Ii6      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

social  needs  of  its  community,  the  other  in  giving  its  graduates 
who  expect  to  teach  in  rural  elementary  schools  some  prepara- 
tion for  teaching  country-life  subjects. 

ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS 

The  introduction  of  agricultural  subjects  into  elementary 
schools  has  proceeded  mainly  along  two  lines — one  as  a  result 
of  legislation,  the  other  as  a  natural  outgrowth  of  boys'  agri- 
cultural clubs. 

In  many  places  in  states  where  agriculture  is  a  required 
subject  for  instruction  in  rural  schools  no  such  legislation  was 
really  needed,  for  the  subject  was  already  being  introduced  in 
a  sane  and  effective  way,  and  was  being  made  use  of  as  far  as 
the  experience  of  the  teacher  and  conditions  of  the  school  en- 
vironment would  j>ermit. 

The  results  of  compulsory  teaching  of  agriculture  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  have  been  twofold :  first,  in  stimulating  those 
in  charge  of  the  administration  to  provide  helps  to  those  teach- 
ers who  are  expected  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the  law; 
second,  in  the  production  and  use  of  textbooks  on  elementary 
agriculture.  The  first  has  been  done  through  bulletins,  teachers' 
leaflets,  institute  instruction,  summer  normal  schools,  and  in  vari- 
ous other  ways.  Some  agricultural  colleges  have  been  called  upon 
to  give  attention  to  elementary  education  sooner  than  they  other- 
wise would.  They  have  been  forced  to  study  the  rural-school 
situation  and  devise  means  for  improving  it.  The  work  of  state 
offices  of  education  and  of  agricultural  colleges  in  promoting 
agricultural  education  in  rural  communities  has  already  been 
considered  somewhat  in  detail  in  previous  chapters.  But  the  con- 
tributions of  these  two  agencies  to  agricultural  education  in 
elementary  schools  must  not  be  ascribed  wholly  to  legislation,  for 
in  several  states  having  no  requirements  as  to  teaching  of  agri- 
culture both  state  departments  of  education  and  agricultural 
colleges  have  done  excellent  service  in  providing  helps  for 
teachers  wishing  to  introduce  the  subject  in  their  schools. 


ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  117 

The  second  result  has  been  less  satisfactory.  Indeed,  in 
some  instances  it  has  proved  a  positive  detriment  to  agricultural 
education.  It  has  in  effect  added  another  textbook  subject  to 
an  already  crowded  rural-school  curriculum,  for  many  teachers, 
in  spite  of  whatever  suggestions  they  may  receive  from  leaflets 
or  institute  instruction,  know  of  no  other  way  to  teach  except 
by  means  of  a  textbook.  It  has  put  undue  emphasis  on  the 
agricultural  textbook.  More  than  a  score  of  elementary  text- 
books have  appeared  within  a  decade.  Publishers  have  been 
very  active  in  securing  the  use  of  their  books  in  the  rural 
schools.  While  the  value  of  a  good  textbook  must  be  con- 
ceded, it  is  apt  to  be  the  means  of  substituting  agricultural  in- 
formation for  real  agricultural  instruction.  The  kind  of  agri- 
cultural instruction  best  adapted  for  the  elementary  schools 
cannot  be  given  merely  by  means  of  recitations  from  a  text- 
book. 

There  may  be  some  justification  in  making  the  teaching  of  a 
subject  compulsory  on  the  ground  that  otherwise  it  would  never 
be  taught.  On  the  other  hand  it  may  seriously  be  questioned, 
since  the  whole  burden  of  such  a  measure  falls  upon  the  teach- 
ers, whether  efficient  teaching  of  any  subject  may  be  secured  by 
mandatory  legislation.  The  length  of  teaching  service  of  the 
average  rural  teacher  is  very  short,  perhaps  less  than  three 
years.  As  a  result  rural  teachers  are  constantly  being  recruited 
from  the  young  graduates  of  grammar  and  high  schools.  It  is 
claimed  by  some  that  whatever  preparation  these  inexperienced 
teachers  may  make  is  largely  determined  by  what  they  are  ex- 
pected to  teach.  If  they  must  teach  agriculture  they  will  make 
some  effort  to  prepare  themselves  to  teach  this  subject.  It 
is  probably  on  this  theory  that  so  many  states  have  tried  this 
plan  of  introducing  agriculture  into  the  rural  schools.  At 
least  sixteen  states  have  tried  this  plan,  and  in  several  other  states 
bills  providing  for  such  instruction  were  considered  by  legislatures 
last  in  session,  and  one  (in  Ohio)  became  a  law. 

The  second  line  of  development  of  agricultural  education 


Ii8      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

in  elementary  schools  has  produced  a  much  better  type  of  in- 
struction than  the  former  or  mandatory  method.  This  is  partly 
because  the  results  of  boys'  clubs  have  shown  the  value  of  agri- 
culture as  a  school  subject,  and  have  thus  secured  for  it  public 
approval  and  support,  and  partly  because  experience  in  man- 
aging these  clubs  has  given  the  teachers  some  insight  into 
methods  of  adapting  the  subject  to  the  needs  of  the  school,  and 
of  making  it  an  effective  part  of  the  regular  school  work. 

Teachers  who  have  been  the  most  successful  are  those  who 
have  selected  agricultural  subjects  of  special  interest  to  the 
school  community,  and  who  have  used  methods  calling  for  self- 
activity  on  the  part  of  the  pupils — having  the  pupils  learn  by 
doing  rather  than  by  reciting.  The  following  is  a  list  of  various 
kinds  of  work  reported  to  be  successfully  adapted  to  rural 
schools  (147)  :  experimental  plots  for  plant  breeding,  soil  in- 
oculation, and  other  soil  experiments;  ear-to-row  method  of 
improving  com,  and  use  of  acre  plots ;  seed  germinating  includ- 
ing tests  of  viability;  collection  of  economic  plants,  weeds,  weed- 
seed,  and  insects;  budding,  grafting,  pruning,  and  spraying 
fruit  trees ;  milk  testing  with  Babcock  milk  tester. 

The  importance  attached  by  pupils  and  patrons  to  such  work 
is  well  illustrated  by  the  following  report.  In  one  county  in 
Iowa  it  is  the  practice  for  each  school  to  have  in  the  spring  a 
germinating  test  for  com.    One  teacher  says  of  this  work : 

My  boys  who  would  not  go  across  the  road  for  a  song  book  went  two 
miles  in  the  snow  to  get  some  sawdust  for  a  germinating  box.  When  the 
corn  had  germinated,  the  farmers  came  to  the  schoolhouse  to  see  how  their 
corn  had  turned  out,  and  incidentally  saw  the  work  of  the  school.  Why, 
farmers  came  who  couldn't  remember  when  they  had  been  inside  the  school- 
house  before!    (148,  p.  18). 

The  rural  school  is  badly  in  need  of  redirection,  but  it  will 
take  more  than  the  teaching  of  agriculture  to  bring  this  about. 
However,  some  sort  of  nature-study  agriculture  that  has  ele- 
ments of  interest  to  pupils  and  parents  alike  may  do  much 
toward  putting  the  rural  school  in  the  way  of  redirection.  Here 
and  there  are  promises  of  the  fulfilment  of  L.  H.  Bailey's  vi- 


ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  119 

sion  of  a  rural  school  living  up  to  its  possibilities.  Referring 
to  the  kind  of  agricultural  studies  suggested  in  the  above  report, 
he  says : 

All  such  teaching  as  this  will  call  for  a  new  purpose  in  the  school  build- 
ing. The  present  country-school  building  is  a  structure  in  which  children 
sit  to  study  books  and  recite  from  them.  It  should  also  be  a  place  in  which 
the  children  can  work  with  their  hands.  Every  school  building  should  have 
a  laboratory  room,  in  which  there  may  be  a  few  plants  growing  in  the  win- 
dows, and  perhaps  an  aquarium  and  terrarium.  Here  the  children  will  bring 
flowers  and  insects  and  samples  of  soil,  and  varieties  of  com  or  cotton  in 
their  season,  and  other  objects  that  interest  them,  and  here  they  may  perform 
their  simple  work  with  tools.  Even  if  the  teacher  cannot  teach  these  sub- 
jects, the  room  itself  will  teach.  The  mere  bringing  of  such  objects  would 
have  a  tremendous  influence  on  children:  patrons  would  ask  what  the  room 
is  for;  in  time  a  teacher  would  be  found  who  could  handle  the  subject  peda- 
gogically.  Now  we  see  children  carrying  only  books  to  school;  some  day 
they  will  also  carry  twigs  and  potatoes  and  animals  and  tools  and  contrivances 
and  other  personal  objects  (122). 

SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

Previous  to  1906  there  were  but  few  high  schools  (except- 
ing agricultural  high  schools)  giving  instruction  in  agriculture; 
in  1906-7  there  were  75-80;  in  1907-8,  240-50;  in  1908-9, 
over  500;  in  1909-10,  probably  1,000;  in  1910-11,  incomplete 
data  indicate  as  many  as  1,500.  The  number  of  agricultural 
high  schools  (those  giving  two  or  more  years  of  agricultural 
instruction)  in  1909  was  125;  in  191  o,  144.  Of  these  there 
were  receiving  local  support,  in  1909,  24;  in  1910,  33;  receiv- 
ing state  aid  in  1909,  29;  in  19 10,  39;  technical  schools  giving 
agricultural  instruction  in  1909,  37;  in  1910,  47;  connected  with 
agricultural  colleges  in  1909,  34;  in  1910,  35  (149,  pp.  333-355 
150,  PP-  23-25). 

Secondary  agricultural  education  has  developed  along  sev- 
eral lines,  giving  rise  to  as  many  as  eight  more  or  less  distinct 
types,  viz.  (a)  agricultural-college,  (b)  district,  (c)  county, 
(d)  village-township,  (e)  city,  (/)  state  aid,  (g)  technical,  (h) 
normal.^ 

'  The  first  four  types  of  this  classification  are  suggested  by  G.  A.  Bricker  in  his  Teaching 
of  Agricultural  in  the  High  School,  chap,  ii  (151). 


I20      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

The  agricultural-college  type  is  well  illustrated  by  the  School 
of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Minnesota.  This  school 
has  the  distinction  of  being  one  of  the  first  secondary  schools 
of  agriculture.     It  was 

organized  in  1888  with  the  object  of  giving  practical  education  to  young 
men  and  women  who  are  unable  to  pursue  the  full  college  course  in  agri- 
culture. It  offers  a  practical  course  of  study  designed  to  fit  young  men  and 
women  for  successful  farm  life,  and  aims  to  give  its  students  the  necessary 
preparation  for  useful  citizenship  (152,  p.  8). 

The  district  type  is  found  in  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Georgia, 
Oklahoma,  and  Virginia.  The  districts  in  each  of  these  states  ex- 
cept Oklahoma  correspond  to  the  several  congressional  dis- 
tricts. The  objects  of  all  these  schools  are  similar  and  are 
summed  up  in  the  following  statement  concerning  the  Alabama 
District  Agricultural  Schools  which  were  the  first  of  this  type 
of  schools  to  be  established : 

To  turn  out  young  men  well  grounded  in  the  underlying  principles  of 
scientific  and  practical  agriculture,  that  they  may  make  successful  planters 
and  advance  the  farming  interests  of  the  state. 

To  give  such  instruction  and  training  as  will  fix  in  the  minds  of  the 
young  men  high  ideals  of  country-life  education,  as  is  done  in  the  best  agri- 
cultural high  schools  under  the  name  of  "agriculture  and  home  economics." 

To  educate  and  fully  equip  young  men  and  women  for  efficient  teaching 
in  the  public  schools  of  the  state. 

To  prepare  those  who   desire  to   enter  higher   institutions  of   learning 

(153,  P-  15)' 

The  establishment  of  county  agricultural  high  schools  is  now 
authorized  in  at  least  twenty-three  states.  In  many  of  these 
states  such  schools  receive  state  aid.  The  county  schools  of 
Wisconsin  are  the  oldest  and  best  known.  In  the  Wisconsin 
schools 

the  courses  are  two  years  in  length  and  include  subjects  of  general  agricul- 
ture; biology  and  physical  subjects;  laboratory  and  field  and  shop  work; 
domestic  science,  home  economy,  and  hygiene ;  sewing  and  millinery ;  farm 
management  and  accounts,  besides  courses  in  English,  history,  civics,  and 
other  branches  of  the  usual  high-school  type  (151,  p.  23). 

'See  Georgia  District  Agricultural  Schools  (154). 


ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  121 

The  Baltimore  County  (Md.)  Agricultural  High  School 
presents  some  features  that  deserve  special  mention : 

The  school  is  meant  especially  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  rural  community. 
It  presents  all  the  usual  subjects  taught  in  high  schools,  except  foreign 
languages,  and  in  addition  teaches  agriculture,  domestic  science,  and  manual 
training.  It  is  thus  planned  that  students  graduating  from  this  school  will, 
in  addition  to  a  good  general  or  academic  education,  have  some  industrial 
or  vocational  training  to  fit  them  to  take  their  places  in  the  world  (155,  p.  i). 

The  principal,  who  is  a  specialist  in  agriculture,  devotes  the  en- 
tire year  to  the  school,  spending  the  usual  summer  vacation  in 
the  interests  of  the  school,  inspecting  and  directing  the  work  of 
the  pupils  who  are  carrying  out  in  a  practical  way  experiments 
and  problems  outlined  during  the  school  year.  In  this  manner 
the  principles  of  agriculture  taught  in  the  school  are  carried 
over  into  practice  under  normal  farming  conditions.  In  addi- 
tion to  offering  excellent  instruction  in  agriculture  and  in  other 
subjects,  the  school  further  serves  the  community  by  giving 
courses  for  rural  school  teachers  and  for  farmers  and  their 
wives,  and  by  furnishing  a  center  for  religious  service  and  literary 
and  social  activities  for  the  young  people   (156). 

Most  of  the  high  schools  giving  instruction  in  agriculture 
are  of  the  village-township  type.  The  work  of  two  of  these 
high  schools  which  were  among  the  first  to  make  agriculture 
a  subject  of  instruction  has  already  been  referred  to  in  chap, 
vii.  The  motive  for  reorganizing  rural  village  and  township 
high  schools  on  the  basis  of  country-life  interests  is  well  ex- 
pressed (in  an  account  of  the  New  Holland  (Ohio)  High  School : 

The  larger  percentage  of  the  boys  and  girls  who  are  enrolled  in  the  village 
and  township  high  schools  of  this  state  will  spend  their  lives  either  in  the 
rural  districts  or  villages  where  farm  life  and  agricultural  industries  are  the 
leading  interests.  They  will  be  either  farmers  or  farmers'  wives,  or  they 
will  be  engaged  in  business  very  intimately  connected  with  agriculture.  In 
view  of  this  condition  the  Board  of  Education  at  New  Holland,  Ohio,  has 
placed  agriculture  in  the  curriculum  of  the  high  school  (157,  p.  3). 

Another  of  the  earlier  schools  of  this  type  whose  success 
has  attracted  considerable  attention  is  the  John  Swaney  School, 
Putnam  County,  Illinois  (158). 


122      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

High  schools  of  cities  surrounded  by  agricultural  commu- 
nitiies  enrol  a  large  nimiber  of  pupils  from  the  country.  The 
special  needs  of  such  pupils  have  recently  been  recognized  by  a 
few  city  high  schools.  Thus  in  the  Stockton  (Cal.)  High  School 
a  department  of  agriculture  was  organized  at  the  beginning  of 
the  present  school  year.  A  director  who  is  an  agricultural- 
college  graduate,  has  charge.  He  is  not  expected  to  teach  more 
than  one-third  of  his  time;  the  rest  of  his  time  is  to  be  devoted 
to  the  "study  of  agricultural  problems  at  first  hand  throughout 
the  farm 'area  tributary  to  Stockton."  He  is  to  take  up  any  agri- 
cultural problem  at  any  time,  go  to  the  farm,  and  help  find  a 
solution.  By  this  means  the  farmer  is  reached  directly  and 
made  to  feel  that  our  school  director  and  teachers  are  will- 
ing and  able  to  educate  boys  and  girls  for  profitable  farm 
life  and  to  cope  with  economic  problems  troublesome  and  burden- 
some to  them.  Short  courses  are  also  offered  to  farmers  and 
those  interested  in  agriculture  who  cannot  take  the  full  course. 
A  course  is  offered  to  students  who  expect  to  be  teachers  with 
a  view  of  providing  the  rural  schools  with  teachers  having  a 
knowledge  of,  and  an  interest  in,  farm  life.  Further  aid  is  given 
the  rural  schools  by  a  series  of  teachers'  meetings  and  confer- 
ences with  the  director  in  charge  (159). 

The  Gardena  High  School  of  Los  Angeles  has  been  offering 
courses  in  agriculture  with  particular  reference  to  horticulture, 
gardening,  and  poultry  raising  which  are  the  dominant  interests 
of  the  community  (160).  The  San  Diego  (Cal.)  High  School 
has  also  recently  established  a  department  of  agriculture  some- 
what after  the  Stockton  plan. 

Agriculture  in  city  high  schools  located  in  farming  re- 
gions offers  a  very  promising  field  for  further  development. 
These  schools  have  advantages  that  compensate  somewhat  for 
their  immediate  non-rural  surroundings.  Their  laboratory  facili- 
ties are  usually  very  good,  and  they  are  able  by  means  of  high 
salaries  to  secure  experienced  and  well-equipped  teachers. 

In  order  to  encourage  the  introduction  of  agriculture  into 


ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  123 

rural  high  schools  some  states  have  offered  the  inducement  of 
state  aid  to  a  limited  number  of  schools  undertaking  this  work. 
For  example,  Minnesota  is  now  giving  for  this  purpose  $2,500 
to  each  of  thirty  high  schools,  and  $1,000  to  each  of  sixty. 
This  method  has  some  advantages  over  entire  local  support, 
for  it  not  only  makes  possible  the  securing  of  good  teachers 
but  provides  for  a  higher  standard  of  efficiency  than  is  likely 
to  be  secured  by  a  purely  local  management.  (See  chaps,  iii. 
and  iv.) 

The  Hinckley  State  High  School  which  is  a  good  example  of 
this  type  of  high  school  organized  in  Minnesota  offers  the 
following  courses:  literary  course,  four  years;  agricultural- 
industrial  course,  four  years;  special  agricultural  course,  two 
years;  short  course  for  institutes  for  fanners;  normal  course 
for  rural  teachers,  one  year  (161). 

A  somewhat  different  plan  of  state  aid  to  high  schools  giv- 
ing instruction  in  agriculture,  mechanic  arts,  and  home-making 
is  being  worked  out  in  New  York.  The  following  extract  from 
the  educational  law  of  191  o  will  indicate  the  scope  of  the  New 
York  plan: 

The  Commissioner  of  Education  in  the  annual  apportionment  of  the  state 
school  moneys  shall  apportion  therefrom  to  each  city  and  union  free  school 
district  the  sum  of  $500  for  each  independently  organized  general  industrial 
school,  trade  school,  or  school  of  agriculture,  mechanic  arts,  and  home-making, 
maintained  therein  for  38  weeks  during  the  school  year  and  employing  one 
teacher  whose  work  is  devoted  exclusively  to  such  school,  and  having  an 
enrolment  of  at  least  25  pupils,  and  maintaining  a  course  of  study  approved 
by  him.  The  Commissioner  shall  also  make  an  additional  appropriation  to 
each  city  or  union  free  school  district  of  $200  for  each  additional  teacher  em- 
ployed exclusively  in  such  schools  for  38  weeks  during  the  school  year 
(162,  p.  3). 

In  order  to  secure  successful  operation  of  this  law,  the  or- 
ganization and  general  oversight  of  all  schools  receiving  state 
aid  for  teaching  agriculture  are  under  the  direction  of  the  State 
Department  of  Agricultural  Education.  The  State  Department 
of  Education  has  also  prepared  a  very  complete  series  of  syllabi 
of  courses  in  agriculture  for  high  schools.    From  this  series  it  is 


124      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

possible  for  a  school  to  select  subjects  adapted  to  the  particular 
agricultural  interests  of  the  community  (163). 

Agriculture  in  the  technical  type  of  secondary  schools  re- 
ceives much  the  same  attention  as  in  the  district  type,  the  chief 
difference  being  that  the  latter  offers  no  courses  in  mechanic 
arts.  These  schools  seem  to  be  patterned  after  state  agricul- 
tural and  mechanical  colleges,  but  offering  only  instruction  of 
secondary  grade.  A  good  example  of  this  type  is  the  Cali- 
fornia Polytechnic  School,  which  was  opened  in  1903  at  San 
Luis  Obispo.  This  institution  is  supported  by  the  state,  and  is 
intended  "to  furnish  to  the  young  people  of  both  sexes  mental 
and  manual  training  in  arts  and  sciences,  including  agriculture, 
mechanical  engineering,  business  methods,  domestic  economy, 
and  such  other  branches  as  will  fit  students  for  non-professional 
walks  of  life"  (16,  p.  22). 

Agricultural  education  in  State  Normal  Schools  has  already 
been  discussed  in  chap.  vi.  Instruction  in  agriculture  in  these 
schools  is  usually  of  secondary  grade  but  with  the  special  aim 
of  preparing  teachers.  In  some  of  these  schools  considerable 
emphasis  is  placed  upon  agriculture,  and  work  corresponding 
to  some  of  the  best  agricultural  high  schools  is  offered.  For 
example,  the  Cape  Girardeau  (Mo.)  State  Normal  School  has 
a  department  of  agriculture  not  only  for  teachers  but  for 
furnishing  "young  men  from  the  farm  an  opportunity  of  obtain- 
ing the  equivalent  of  a  good  high-school  educaition  of  such  a 
nature  as  will  fit  them  to  carry  on  the  business  of  farming 
according  to  the  most  approved  farm  methods"  (164,  p.  63). 

The  development  of  secondary  agricultural  instruction  has 
proceeded  along  two  lines,  one  by  employing  existing  high 
schools,  the  other  in  organizing  separate  agricultural  high 
schools.  The  recent  tendency  as  indicated  by  the  statistical  sum- 
mary introducing  this  discussion  seems  strongly  in  the  direction 
of  the  former.  No  doubt  there  is  much  to  be  said  in  favor  of 
separate  agricultural  high  schools  to  meet  conditions  in  certain 
localities,  but  taking  the  country  as  a  whole  the  natural  tendency, 
as  above   indicated,  of  maintaining  the   unity  of  our  present 


\ 

ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  125 

school  organization  presents  obvious  advantages  which  the  pub- 
lic has  already  begun  to  realize. 

Attention  should  be  given,  in  this  connection,  to  the  fact 
that  much  misapprehension  and  undue  concern  exists  as  to  the 
plan  of  organization  of  the  agricultural  high  school.  A  careful 
analysis  of  the  course  of  study  of  the  average  agricultural  high 
school  will  show  less  divergence  from  the  plan  of  the  ordinary 
high  school  than  many  suppose.  It  will  be  found  that  the 
courses  of  study  are  essentially  the  same  in  many  particulars, 
the  chief  difference  being  the  substitution  of  agricultural  and 
household-arts  subjects  for  the  foreign  languages,  with  perhaps 
more  emphasis  on  the  practical  side  of  the  sciences  and  less 
emphasis  on  certain  phases  of  mathematics  (165). 

One  real  difficulty  in  making  the  most  of  agriculture  as  a 
school  subject  lies  in  the  fact  that  there  is  little  opportunity  for 
agricultural  practice  corresponding  to  shop  practice  in  mechanic 
arts.  The  most  active  season  of  agricultural  work  is  during  the 
summer  vacation.  This  difficulty  may  be  met  in  the  way  already 
referred  to  in  the  account  of  the  Baltimore  County  (Md.)  Agri- 
cultural High  School,  where  the  teacher  of  agriculture  devotes 
the  usual  summer  vacation  period  to  looking  after  experiments 
being  conducted  by  the  pupils.  This  matter  has  been  carefully 
studied  by  a  special  agent  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of 
Education  and  concilusions  submitted  to  the  legislature  in  the 
form  of  a  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  on  Agricultural 
Education  (166).  Provision  for  proper  farm  practice  as 
recommended  in  this  report  is  secured  by  part-time  work 
in  agriculture  which  may  utilize  "home  land,  equipment,  and 
time,  outside  school  hours,  for  practical  training  supervised 
by  the  school."  The  scheme  is  worked  out  in  considerable 
detail  by  means  of  concrete  examples  of  various  "farming 
projects"  that  may  be  undertaken.  Among  the  major  pro- 
jects suggested  are  caring  for  a  kitchen  garden,  keeping  a  pen 
of  poultry,  caring  for  a  selected  part  of  an  orchard,  raising  a 
specified  crop  of  potatoes,  caring  for  one  cow.  Each  major 
project  is  broken  up  into  minor  projects.     For  example,  keeping 


126      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

a  pen  of  poultry  would  include  as  minor  projects  building  a 
poultry  house  according  to  plans  and  specifications  worked  out 
at  school.  This  in  turn  is  divided  into  such  subordinate  minor 
projects  as  are  necessary  for  successful  completion,  such  as  se- 
lecting a  site  for  the  house,  taking  into  consideration:  soil  as 
related  to  poultry  culture,  underdrainage,  conditions  of  sunlight 
and  shade,  convenience  of  access,  etc.  The  legislation  proposed 
by  this  report  was  passed  by  the  legislature  last  in  session. 
When  the  proposed  plan  goes  into  effect,  its  results  should  be 
carefully  studied  by  all  who  are  interested  in  secondary  agri- 
cultural education. 

The  rapid  introduction  of  agriculture  into  high  schools  is 
responsible,  in  part  at  least,  for  two  interesting  educational  re- 
actions. One  is  the  changed  attitude  of  colleges  toward  agri- 
culture as  an  entrance  unit.  A  few  years  ago  most  colleges 
refused  to  give  any  credit  for  work  done  in  this  subject  in  high 
schools.  Now  36  colleges  actually  recognize  the  subject  and  t.'j 
express  a  willingness  to  do  so  when  it  is  offered  as  an  entrance 
unit,  and  several  other  colleges  are  considering  the  matter  (167). 

The  other  reaction  is  upon  the  method  of  presenting  sec- 
ondary science.  There  is  now  a  growing  tendency  to  relate  sci- 
ence instruction  more  and  more  to  the  practical  affairs  of  life 
(168).  Recent  experiments  seem  to  justify  this  method  of 
approach  to  a  science  even  when  judged  from  the  point  of  view  of 
pure  science  (169,  170). 

Agricultural  colleges  are  now  well  established,  and  their 
problems  are  largely  matters  of  detail  and  of  research.  The 
problems  of  agricultural  education  are  now  being  shifted  to  the 
secondary  schools  offering  agricultural  instruction.  There  is 
a  great  diversity,  not  only  in  respect  to  types  of  schools,  but 
also  as  to  methods,  time  devoted  to  the  subject,  equipment, 
qualification  of  teachers,  and  in  other  respects.  But  of  the 
widespread  interest  there  can  be  no  doubt.  The  results  on  the 
whole  promise  much  for  the  development  of  rural  education 
and  redirection  of  rural  schools. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
TEXTBOOKS 

One  striking  evidence  of  the  growing  interest  in  agricul- 
tural education  in  elementary  and  secondary  schools  is  the  num- 
ber of  textbooks  on  agriculture  that  have  appeared  in  recent 
years. ^  Of  the  seventy-five  or  more  textbooks  on  this  subject 
nearly  forty  have  been  published  since  1900. 

An  excellent  account  of  the  textbooks  of  agriculture,  in- 
cluding historical  aspects,  was  written  by  L.  H.  Bailey  in  1903 
(171).  The  present  discussion  will  therefore  be  confined 
chiefly  to  the  textbooks  published  since  1903.  In  this  period 
of  seven  years  at  least  twenty-eight  textbooks  of  various  kinds 
have  been  written.  Emphasis  should  be  put  on  various,  for  the 
diversity  of  plan  and  treatment  of  the  subject  in  these  books 
makes  it  difficult  to  find  a  basis  of  classification.  They  will 
be  considered  in  this  discussion  as  three  types:  for  elementary 
schools,  for  secondary  schools,  and  for  teachers. 

Most  elementary  textbooks  are  informational  in  character. 
The  subject  is  generally  presented  in  clear  and  simple  language 
easily  within  the  grasp  of  the  pupil.  It  is  assumed  that  the 
pupil  has  had  sufficient  concrete  experiences  with  agricultural 
matters,  and  that  the  text  will  help  him  to  interpret  these  ex- 
periences. There  is  a  minimum  of  effort  required  of  the  pupil 
to  find  out  things  for  himself.  Questions  are  often  given  at 
the  end  of  each  chapter,  but  they  are  usually  merely  a  summary 

'  It  is  possible  that  this  statement  should  be  qualified,  for  the  number  of  books  published 
does  not  indicate  the  number  in  actual  use.  A  quotation  from  a  private  letter  written  by  the 
editor  of  one  of  the  largest  publishing  companies  of  agricultural  books  is  significant:  "Outside 
of  one  textbook  published  by  a  Boston  house,  I  do  not  believe  there  is  another  manual  of  agri- 
culture or  agricultural  textbook  that  has  paid  the  publishers  anything  beyond  mere  cost,  and 
some  have  not  even  paid  cost."  This  was  written  in  igog.  Since  then  conditions  may  have 
changed  for  there  has  been  a  great  development  of  interest  in  the  subject.  Besides,  fourteen 
books  have  been  written  during  and  since  igog.  It  seems  likely  that  the  small  demand  for 
certain  textbooks  may  be  due  to  the  quality  of  the  books  themselves. 

127 


128      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

of  the  text,  and  test  the  memory  rather  than  ability  to  interpret. 
Sometimes  experiments  are  introduced,  either  in  the  text  or 
at  the  end  of  chapters.  But  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  these 
experiments  are  either  so  implied  in  the  text  or  are  so  obvious 
that  the  suggested  experiments  become  merely  concrete  examples 
or  illustrations  of  discussion  in  the  text.  Books  of  this  kind 
are  easily  adapted  to  the  prevailing  recitation  method  and  con- 
sequently are  in  extensive  use  (172).  Several  books  have  ap- 
peared in  which  the  experiment  predominates.  Here  problems 
and  some  suggestions  as  to  procedure  are  given.  The  pupil 
is  expected  to  find  answers  by  means  of  his  own  investigations. 
He  is  supposed  to  learn  to  find  out  things  for  himself.  How- 
ever, even  in  otherwise  admirable  books,  induction  is  often 
"ready-made  for  the  pupil"  (173).  This  method  of  teaching 
by  means  of  experiment  does  not  fit  in  very  well  with  prevailing 
methods  of  teaching.  Many  of  the  teachers  themselves  have 
not  had  the  benefit  of  laboratory  training,  and  hence  know 
very  little  of  any  other  than  the  textbook  method  of  learning 
or  teaching. 

Another  kind  is  the  one  in  which  agriculture  is  correlated 
with  arithmetic.  Problems  for  demonstration  of  the  various 
arithmetical  principles  relate  to  agricultural  aflFairs.  In  the 
preface  of  one  book  occurs  the  statement,  "The  pupil  will  un- 
consciously absorb  and  retain  many  valuable  facts  and  prin- 
ciples relating  to  agricultural  practice";  in  the  preface  of 
another,  the  statement,  "We  trust  that  this  little  book,  by  com- 
bining the  subjects  of  arithmetic  and  agriculture,  will  be  of 
material  assistance  to  teachers  in  their  eflforts  to  do  effective 
work  in  both  branches"  (177,  193)- 

Perhaps  one  reason  for  the  number  of  elementary  agri- 
cultural textbooks-  lies  in  the  nature  of  the  subject  itself. 

Considered  as  an  industry,  agriculture  is  manufacturing,  buying,  and  sell- 
ing. It  is  business.  But  unlike  most  other  businesses,  the  operator  is  pro- 
ducer of  the  raw  material  as  well  as  dealer  in  the  products.  In  order  to 
produce  his  wares  to  the  best  advantage  he  must  know  much  of  the  princi- 
ples in  accordance  with  which  the  most  successful  production  must  proceed. 


TEXTBOOKS  129 

In  other  words,  he  must  know  much  of  the  sciences  on  which  agriculture  is 
based,  as  physics,  chemistry,  botany,  and  other  sciences.  But  he  should  never 
forget  that  the  practice  of  agriculture  is  an  art  and  not  a  science. 

These  remarks  will  suggest  why  it  is  that  there  is  such  a  bewildering 
diversity  in  plan  in  the  various  textbooks  of  agriculture.  One  reason  why 
these  textbooks  have  not  been  more  successful  in  accomplishing  the  missions 
for  which  they  are  designed  is  the  fact  that  they  look  upon  agriculture  from 
the  academic  point  of  view  rather  than  from  the  agricultural.  Another  reason 
is  the  attempt  to  make  them  "practical"  by  inserting  specific  directions  for 
the  performing  of  accustomed  farm  operations;  for  these  directions  must 
necessarily  be  of  local  and  temporary  application,  whereas  principles  are 
general  and  abiding   (171,  p.  690). 

Considered  from  the  standpoint  of  scientific  accuracy  most 
of  these  textbooks  are  good,  but  in  some  there  are  inaccurate 
data,  or  statements  at  variance  with  well-established  facts.  Con- 
sidered from  the  standpoint  of  pedagogy  most  of  these  texts 
are  lacking.  The  matter  is  often  presented  with  little  or  no 
reference  to  this  important  aspect  of  a  textbook.  Indeed,  some 
are  barely  more  than  abridged  encyclopedias  of  agricultural 
information.  This  general  defect  may  possibly  be  accounted 
for  when  we  consider  the  fact  that  the  authors  of  all  these 
books,  with  a  few  exceptions,  are  college  professors,  whose 
chief  interest  is  in  the  subject-matter  with  apparently  little  in- 
terest in  organizing  material  from  a  teaching  standpoint,  and 
giving  no  recognition  to  the  social  possibilities  of  their  subject. 

It  is  probable  that  the  most  useful  book,  at  least  for  the  present,  will 
be  one  that  attempts  at  the  same  time  to  awaken  an  interest  in  country  life 
and  to  set  the  pupil  at  the  working  out  of  specific  problems.  Mere  problems 
are  too  "dry"  to  attract  pupils,  except  now  and  then  under  the  inspiration 
of  an  extra  good  teacher.  On  the  other  hand,  mere  information-giving  has 
little  teaching  value  and  is  not  likely  to  arouse  any  important  enthusiasm  for 
the  open  country  and  the  farm.  On  account  of  the  diversity  of  interests  to 
be  served,  no  single  textbook  of  agriculture  can  hope  to  have  great  leadership 
in  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  thoroughly  satisfactory  text  is  apparently 
yet  to  be  written  (122). 

The  purpose  of  an  agricultural  textbook  for  secondary 
schools  is  well  expressed  in  the  preface  of  a  recent  book  of  this 
grade:  "to  make  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  existing  high 


I30      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

schools  comparable  in  extent  and  thoroughness  with  the  teach- 
ing of  physics,  mathematics,  history,  and  literature."  Although 
some  of  the  elementary  textbooks  already  referred  to  are  being 
used  to  some  extent  in  high  schools  there  are  only  five  books 
known  to  the  writer  that  measure  up  to  the  standard  just  quoted. 
No  two  of  these  follow  the  same  plan  of  treatment.  In  one 
laboratory  work  largely  predominates;  in  another  good  labora- 
tory exercises  follow  each  chapter;  in  another  some  experi- 
ments are  suggested  in  the  text  and  among  the  questions  at  the 
end  of  the  chapters;  in  two  no  laboratory  exercises  are  sug- 
gested except  in  a  general  way  in  the  text  (176,  190,  195,  197, 
200).  These  are  all  well  written,  and  where  one  is  used  as  a 
textbook  the  others  could  be  used  to  advantage  as  reference 
books.  For  a  detailed  comparison  of  these  textbooks  the  bibli- 
ography should  be  consulted. 

There  are  three  other  books  which  properly  belong  among 
secondary  textbooks  of  agriculture  but  which  do  not  cover  the 
entire  subject.  "There  are  those  who  believe  that  when  agri- 
culture is  fully  introduced  as  a  secondary  subject,  it  will  con- 
sist, as  in  college,  not  of  one  but  of  several  courses,  each  with 
its  distinct  and  separate  text."  One  of  these  is  a  laboratory 
manual  dealing  with  soils  and  crops  (198) ;  the  other  two  are 
textbooks,  one  dealing  with  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  other  with 
plant  and  animal  improvement  (184,  196), 

A  third  type  includes  books  for  teachers.  These  books  deal 
with  the  subject  from  the  standpoint  of  teaching.  Five  are 
for  teachers  in  elementary  schools  (185,  187,  189,  194,  199), 
and  one  is  for  teachers  in  secondary  schools  (151).  Not  much 
attention  has  yet  been  given  to  the  teaching  problems  of  the 
subject  of  agriculture,  but  they  are  quite  as  important  as  the 
subject-matter. 

Referring  to  elementary  agricultural  textbooks,  L.  H.  Bailey 
says:  "Efforts  enough  have  been  made,  but  they  have  fallen 
short  of  anticipations.  Before  textbooks  we  need  teachers; 
and  we  must  appeal  to  the  child  through  his  interest  in  nature 


TEXTBOOKS  131 

rather  than  technically  in  the  farm"  (171,  p.  696).  Elementary 
textbooks  are  not  nearly  so  important  as  elementary  teachers. 
It  is  to  the  new  teachers  who  are  to  have  at  least  a  high-school 
education  that  we  must  look  to  carry  agricultural  education  into 
the  rural  elementary  schools.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  addi- 
tional importance  is  to  be  attached  to  instruction  in  agriculture 
and  country-life  subjects  in  rural  high  schools.  A  good  text- 
book with  well-selected  experiments,  although  alone  not  suffi- 
cient, is,  nevertheless,  quite  essential  to  any  general  introduction 
and  efficient  instruction  in  these  high  schools. 

As  this  discussion  of  textbooks  of  agriculture  is  really  sup- 
plementary to  one  already  made  by  L.  H.  Bailey  (171),  his  plan 
of  chronological  bibliography,  with  annotations  as  to  contents, 
will  be  followed.  His  article  and  this  chapter,  including  refer- 
ences 151  and  172—202,  inclusive,  will  thus  bring  the  subject  up 
to  date. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

WITH  ANNOTATIONS 

The  titles  are  arranged  in  order  of  citation  in  the  various  chapters  of  the 
text,  except  numbers  174  to  202.  These  are  arranged  in  chronological  order  as 
in  L.  H.  Bailey's  bibliography  in  his  Development  of  the  Textbook  of  Agriculture 
in  North  America  (171),  the  two  lists  making  an  almost  complete  bibliography 
of  North  American  textbooks  of  agriculture  up  to  the  present. 

The  bibliography  has  been  selected  with  the  view  of  presenting  typical 
contributions  on  various  phases  of  agricultural  education  in  elementary  and 
secondary  schools.    No  attempt  has  been  made  to  make  it  complete. 

1.  Agricultural  Education.  Charles  W.  Dabney.  "Butler's  Monographs 
in  Education"  (1904),  II,  No.  12. 

A  historical  summary  of  agricultural  education  in  the  United  States. 

2.  Historical  Sketch  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture:    Its  Objects  and 

Present  Organization.    Charles  H.  Greathouse.    U.S.  Department  of 

Agriculture,  Division  of  Publications,  Bui.  3,  second  revision  (1907),  97. 

The  first  part  (pp.  5-57)  deals  with  early  government  aids  to  agri- 
culture, agricultural  division  of  patent  office,  organization  of  the  independent 
department,  the  department  raised  to  first  rank,  buildings,  bureaus,  divisions, 
and  offices.  The  second  part  gives  an  account  of  legislation  and  a  tabula- 
tion of  expenditures. 

3.  Secondary  Courses  in  Agriculture  (seventh  report  of  the  Committee  on 

Instruction  in  Agriculture).     U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of 

Experiment  Stations,  Cir.  49,  10. 

A  number  of  high-school  courses  are  given  with  suggested  changes  adapt- 
ing them  to  the  introduction  of  agriculture. 

4.  A  Secondary  Course  in  Agronomy  (eleventh  report  of  the  Committee  on 
Instruction  in  Agriculture).  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of 
Experiment  Stations,  Cir.  77,  43. 

This  report  contains  a  syllabus  of  agronomy,  instructions  to  teachers 
and  113  lectures,  recitations,  demonstrations,  and  laboratory  exercises  on 
various  phases  of  agronomy.  The  plan  is  a  good  one  to  work  to,  but  is 
somewhat  in  advance  of,  or  too  advanced  for,  the  average  high  school. 

5.  The  Teaching  of  Agriculture  in  the  Rural  Common  Schools  (ninth  report 

of  the  Committee  on  Instruction  in  Agriculture).     U.S.  Department  of 

Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Cir.  60,  20. 

This  report  discussed  the  development  of  industrial  training  in  the 
common  schools  and  gives  an  outline  of  work  in  nature-study,  and  ele- 
mentary agriculture  for  such  schools. 

132 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  133 

6.  Publications  for  free  distribution  (revised  annually),  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Division  of  Publications,  Cir.  2  (1908),  76. 

This  list  of  publications  and  copies  of  all  publications  which  it  mentions 
will  be  sent  free  on  application  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washing- 
ton, D.C. 

7.  Free  Publications  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  Classified  for  the  Use  of 
Teachers.  D.  J.  Crosby  and  F.  W.  Howe.  U.S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Cir.  94  (1910),  35. 

This  contains  a  list  of  "free  publications  classified  for  use  of  teachers 
of  agriculture,  botany,  chemistry,  domestic  science,  and  hygiene,  geography, 
physics,  physiology,  and  zoology,  including  entomology." 

8.  Publications  for  sale  (revised  annually),  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Division  of  Publications,  Cir.  3  (1908),  99. 

This  list  may  be  obtained  in  the  same  way  as  (5)  but  applications  for 
publications  mentioned  in  this  list  must  be  addressed  to  the  Superintendent 
of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C.  Only  coin  or 
currency  should  be  sent,  as  stamps  are  not  accepted. 

9.  Monthly  list  of  publications,  U.S.  Department  of  Agricvdture,  Division 

of  Publications,  Monthly  Circular,  4. 

This  circular  will  be  sent  .regularly  to  all  who  apply  for  it.  Address, 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C.  The  list  contains  titles  of  all 
new  publications,  including  reprints  and  revisions,  of  the  Department. 

ID.  The  Weather  Bureau  and  the  Public  Schools.    John  R.  Weeks.    Reprint 
from  Yearbook  of  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1907,  267-76. 

This  reprint  contains  a  discussion  of  methods  of  teaching,  an  outline 
by  grades  of  meteorology  for  the  elementary  schools  of  the  state  of  New 
York,  the  purpose  and  value  of  meteorology  in  school  work,  weather  map 
and  other  aids  to  teachers,  home-made  apparatus,  lantern  slides. 

11.  Forestry  in  the  Public  Schools.    Hugo  A.  Winkenwerder.    U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Forest  Service,  Cir.  130  (1907),  20. 

This  circular  suggests  how  various  school  subjects  may  be  correlated 
with  forestry  and  gives  an  outline  for  such  correlation  with  each  subject. 
It  also  contains  a  very  complete  classified   list  of  references. 

12.  Forest  Nurseries  for  Schools,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers' 
Bui.  423  (1910),  24. 

Directions  are  given  in  detail  for  establishing  a  forest  nursery  in 
connection  with  an  average  public  school. 

13.  The  School  Garden.    L.  C.  Corbett.     U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Special  Cir.  (1905),  6. 

Brief  plans  are  given  for  a  school  garden.  Six  common  vegetables  and 
six  common  flowering  plants   are  described  with  cultural  directions. 

14.  The  School  Garden.    L.  C.  Corbett.     U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Bui.  218  (1905),  40. 

This  bulletin  discusses  value  of  garden  work,  type  of  plants  for  garden, 
laboratory  exercises,  studies  of  soil,  plants,  roots,  stems,  leaves,  cuttings, 
budding,  window  boxes,  and  decoration  of  school  yard. 


134      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

15.  Results  of  Boys'  Demonstration  Work  in  Corn  Clubs  in  igio.  S.  A.  KLnapp 
and  O.  P.  Martin.  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry,  Doc.  647  (1910),  7. 

The  origin  of  the  boys'  corn  club  work  in  connection  with  the  farmers' 
demonstration  work  is  traced  back  to  1906,  and  a  brief  review  of  the 
development  of   the   movement  since   1909   is  given. 

16.  The  American  System   of  Agricultural  Education.    A.    C.   Trite  and 

D.  J.  Crosby.    U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Oflace  of  Experiment 

Stations,  Cir.  83  (1909),  27. 

Agricultural  education  in  America  is  discussed  briefly  as  follows:  De- 
partments of  original  research  and  graduate  study  in  agriculture ;  agricultural 
colleges ;  secondary  schools  of  agriculture ;  elementary  schools ;  schools  for 
Negroes  and  Indians.  Under  elementary  instruction  the  work  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  includes,  (i)  nature-study  with  plants,  farm  crops, 
domestic  animals,  and  soils;  (2)  school  garden  work,  including  improvement 
of  school  grounds;  (3)  lecture  courses  and  institutes  for  rural  school 
children ;     (4)    organization   of   clubs   among   school   children. 

i^.  Experiment  Station  Record.  E.  W.  Allen,  editor.  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 

The  Record  contains  numerous  abstracts  of  publications  of  the  agri- 
cultural experiment  stations  and  kindred  institutions  in  this  and  other 
countries ;  articles  and  editorials  on  topics  of  special  interest  in  agricultural 
science  by  American  and  foreign  experts.  One  department  is  devoted  en- 
tirely to  reviews  of  publications  on  agricultural  education.  With  the  begin- 
ning of  the  current  volume  (XXI)  this  serial  will  be  issued  in  two  volumes 
a  year  of  six  niunbers  each.  Subscription,  one  dollar  per  volume,  payable 
in  advance  to  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing 
Office,  Washington,  D.C. 

18.  Form  of  Organization  for  Movable  Schools  of  Agriculture.  John  Hamilton. 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Cir.  79 
(1908),  8. 

A  plan  is  proposed  to  organize  movable  schools  of  agriculture  for 
farmers  over  nineteen  years  of  age  and  for  teachers  in  rural  schools.  A 
course  is  to  extend  over  three  or  four  seasons.  The  purpose  is  to  equip 
several  persons  in  each  community  "so  that  they  will  be  able  to  improve 
in  their  locality  the  branch  of  agriculture  which  the  school  represents," 

19.  Education  for  Country  Life.    Willet  M.  Hayes.    U.S.  Department  of 

Agricxilture,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Cir.  84  (1909),  40. 

This  is  a  reprint  of  an  address  given  before  the  Minnesota  Educational 
Association,  January  2,  1908.  It  contains  a  general  discussion  of  agricultural 
education,  followed  by  plans  for  organization  of  schools  for  country  life, 
county  system  of  consolidated  rural  schools,  or  the  farm  school,  the  agri- 
cultural high  school,  and  financing  consolidated  rural  schools  in  Minnesota. 

20.  List  of  publications  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  on  agricultural 
education,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 
Cir.  Oct.  27,  1908,  13. 

This  comprises  136  publications:  24  circulars,  65  bulletins,  25  sepa- 
rates, 9  lectures,  3  documents.  All  phases  of  agricultural  education  from 
elementary    to    graduate    instruction    are    represented.      The    following    are 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  135 

some  of  the  publications  relating  to  elementary  schools:  Separates,  Boys' 
Agricultural  Clubs,  Illustrative  Material  in  Teaching  Agriculture  in  Rural 
Schools,  Training  Courses  for  Teachers  of  Agriculture;  Bulletins:  160, 
School  Gardens,  186,  Exercises  in  Elementary  Agriculture — Plant  Produc- 
tion, 195,  Simple  Exercises  Illustrating  Some  Applications  of  Chemistry 
to  Agriculture;  Circular  52,  Books  and  Bulletins  on  Nature-Study,  School 
Gardening,  and  Elementary  Agriculture. 

21.  "The  Work  of  the  Bureau  of  Education."    U.S.  Bureau  of  Education. 

Report  of  Commissioner  (1907),  1-36. 

A  short  historical  account  is  given,  followed  by  purpose,  publications, 
organization,  agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges,  and  appendix  containing 
laws  relating  to  Bureau,  descriptions  of  facilities  for  research,  education 
in  Alaska,  and  statistics  of  maintenance  of  Bureau. 

22.  Development  of  Agricultural  Education.    Elmer  Ellsworth  Brown. 

U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Bulletin 

No.  196  (1907),  49-54- 

An  address  given  on  the  occasion  of  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the 
founding  of .  Michigan  Agricultural  College.  The  Commissioner  discusses 
the  relation  agricultursil  education  bears  to  general  education. 

23.  "School  Gardens."  E.  Gang.  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education.  Report  of 
Commissioner  (1898-99),  1067-84. 

This  is  one  of  the  best  short  accounts,  especially  from  historical  stand- 
point, published.  "Contents:  Historical  review;  sites  and  arrangement  of 
school  gardens ;  different  sections  of  school  gardens ;  management ;  instruc- 
tion in  school  gardens ;  educational  and  economic  significance  of  school 
gardens." 

24.  "Methods  of  Instruction  in  Agriculture."  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education. 
Report  of  Commissioner  (1897-98),  1575-1616. 

This  chapter  contains  reprints  of  several  Cornell  University  and  Pur- 
due University  leaflets,  and  a  report  of  the  work  at  Cornell  University  under 
the  Nixon  law  of  1897. 

25.  Agricultural  Education,  Including  Nature-Study  and  School  Gardens. 
James  Ralph  Jewell.  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bid.  2  (1907,  revised 
1909),  148. 

The  subject  is  discussed  under  six  heads :  Nature-Study,  School  Gar- 
dens, Elementary  Agricultural  Education,  Agricultural  Education,  Practical 
Advantages  of  Agricultural  Education.  There  is  also  a  bibliography  of 
134  titles,  and  appendices  on  nature  observations  in  schools  of  Nova  Scotia, 
and  on  the  Irish  s}'stem  of  agricultural  education. 

26.  "Agrictdtural  and  Mechanical  Colleges."  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education. 
Report  of  Commissioner  (1907),  869-924. 

The  first  part  of  this  chapter  is  devoted  to  general  statements  include 
ing  summary  of  legislation ;  the  second  part  is  statistical. 

27.  "Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Colleges."    Ibid.  (1908),  737-69. 

28.  "Industrial  Education."    Ibid.  (1908),  84-89. 

The  full  text  of  the  Davis  bill  (H.R.  18,204)  is  given. 


136      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

29.  "Digest  of  School  Laws."    Ibid.  (1904),  249-518. 

A  condensed  account  of  organization  of  all  state  departments  of  edu- 
cation is  given  and  a  summary  of  school  laws  from  time  of  organization  of 
each  state  department  to  1904. 

30.  State  School  Systems.  Edward  C.  Elliott.  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education, 
Bulletin  No.  3,  1906. 

This  contains  legislation  and  judicial  decisions  relating  to  public  educa- 
tion from  October  i,  1904,  to  October  i,   1906. 

31.  Idem.    Bulletin  No.  7,  1908. 

This  contains  legislation  and  judicial  decisions  relating  to  public  edu- 
cation from  October  i,   1906,  to  October  i,  1908. 

32.  Course  of  Study  for  Departments  of  Agriculture  and  Home  Economics. 
V.  L.  Roy.    Baton  Rouge,  La. :  State  Department  of  Education  (1910), 

64. 

Most  of  this  bulletin  is  devoted  to  agriculture.  It  includes  require- 
ments for  departments  of  agriculture  in  high  schools,  outlines  of  courses 
of  study,  syllabi  of  courses  on  general  agriculture,  farm  animals,  farm 
bookkeeping,  chemistry,  dairying,  agricultural  engineering,  entomology, 
farm  crops,  field  practice,  horticulture,  rural  law,  farm  management,  poultry, 
shop  practice,  and  soils  and  fertilizers.  Directions  to  teachers  of  agri- 
culture are  given.     A  list  of  apparatus  and  reference  books  is  also  included. 

33.  Agricultural  Projects  for  Elementary  Schools.  Julius  E.  Warren.  The 
Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts,  Board  of  Education,  Bui.  i  (191 1),  53. 

"This  manual  is  prepared  as  a  guide  to  teachers  and  superintendents 
in  the  introduction  of  work  in  agriculture  in  elementary  schools."  It  con- 
sists of  projects  including  potatoes,  corn,  tomatoes,  beets,  Swiss  chard, 
carrots,  parsnips,  spinich,  lettuce,  cucumbers,  radishes,  kohl-rabi,  alfalfa, 
sweet  peas ;  suggestions  for  garden  work,  including  nature  of  appeal  to 
pupils,  equipment,  and  general  suggestions ;  laboratory  work  consisting  of 
twelve  exercises  such  as  testing  germinating  power  of  small  seeds,  to 
show  that  plants  need  air,  to  show  that  liquids  move  upward  through 
plants,  etc. ;  collateral  work  including  letters,  filing  letters,  diaries,  themes, 
stories,  illustrations,  drawing,  reading,  memory  selections,  arithmetic,  etc. 

34.  Course  of  Study  for  Agricultural  High  Schools.  D.  C.  Hull,  J.  W.  Bell, 
and  H.  L.  Whitfield.  Jackson,  Miss. :  State  Department  of  Education 
(1910),  8. 

Among  the  subjects  discussed  are :  How  to  establish  an  agricultural 
high  school ;  How  to  make  a  success  of  the  school ;  When  the  school  will 
fail ;  Inspector  of  agricultural  high  schools ;  Experimental  stage  of  the 
schools ;    Course  of  study. 

35.  Manual  of  Agriculture  for  the  Public  Schools  of  Vermont.  G.  L.  Green, 
L.  C.  Cook,  and  T.  J.  Abbott.  Montpelier,  Vt.:  State  Department  of 
Education  (1911),  61. 

Sixty-nine  exercises  in  elementary  agriculture  are  given :  twenty-two 
on  soils,  four  on  soil  chemistry,  twelve  on  seed  germination,  nine  on  plant 
growth,  ten  on  crops,  nine  on  forestry,  and  four  on  animal  life.  Score 
cards  for  potatoes,  vegetables,  cheese,  butter,  and  dairy  cattle,  and  a  list  of 
references  are  also  given. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  137 

36.  On  the  Training  of  Persons  to  Teach  Agriculture  in  the  Public  Schools. 

Liberty  Hyde  Bailey.    Washington,  D.C.:  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education, 

Bulletin  No.  3  (1908),  53. 

The  subject  is  discussed  in  three  parts :  I,  The  nature  of  the  problem 
in  (o)  elementary  schools,  (ft)  high  schools,  (c)  special  schools;  II,  The 
means  of  training  the  teachers  (a)  those  already  in  service,  (b)  new  teach- 
ers; III,  The  general  outlook;  the  significance  of  normal  work  in  the  col- 
leges of  agriculture. 

37.  Cornell  Nature-Study  Leaflets.    New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture 

of  Cornell  University,  Albany,  N.Y.:   State  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Nature-Study  Bulletin  No.  i  (1904),  607. 

This  volume  is  made  up  of  selections,  with  revisions,  from  the  Teach- 
ers' Leaflets,  Home  Nature-Study  Lessons,  Junior  Naturalist  Monthly,  and 
other  publications  from  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  Cornell  University. 

38.  Rural  School  Leaflet.  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  of  Cornell 
University,  Ithaca,  N.Y. 

Vol.  I  of  this  publication  began  in  September,  1907.  It  is  published 
monthly  in  the  interest  of  the  rural  schools.  It  takes  the  place  of  the 
various  other  nature-study  publications  sent  out  by  this  institution :  Teach- 
ers' Nature-Study  Leaflets,  beginning  in  1897;  the  Junior  Naturalist,  from 
1901  to  1904;  Nature-Study  Quarterly,  beginning  in  1899;  Home  Nature- 
Study  Lessons,  beginning  in  1900,  new  series  in   1904. 

39.  The  Junior  Agriculturalist.  C.  A.  Stebbins,  editor.  Berkeley,  Cal.: 
University  of  California,  College  of  Agriculture. 

"A  little  paper  issued  twice  a  month  for  the  boys  and  girls  of  Cali- 
fornia." The  first  number  appeared  March  18,  191 1.  This  paper  was 
planned  primarily  to  reach  the  boys  and  girls  who  are  studying  agriculture 
with  the  extension  work  of  the  University  Agricultural  Department.  Each 
number  consists  of  two  kinds  of  contributions :  suggestions  to  pupils,  and 
letters  from  pupils  giving  accounts  of  their  work. 

40.  Agricultural  Education.  J.  H.  Miller,  editor.  Manhattan,  Kan.: 
Kansas  State  Agricultural  College.    Vol.  I  began  November,  1908. 

No  regular  dates  of  publication  are  announced,  but  it  is  intended  that 
at  least  four  numbers  will  be  issued  each  year.  Each  number  takes  up 
somewhat  in  detail  some  one  subject;  Vol.  I,  No.  i,  A  Corn  Primer,  pp.  46; 
No.  2,  Plant  Breeding,  pp.  92 ;  No.  3,  A  Study  of  Insects,  pp.  52 ;  No.  4, 
Insects  Injurious  to  Farm  Crops,  pp.  91  ;  No.  5,  Boys'  and  Girls'  Contest 
Number,  pp.   22. 

An  educational  series  of  four  numbers  appeared  in  1907,  being  special 
editions  of  The  Industrialist,  a  weekly  publication  of  the  College.  Previous 
to  1907  occasional  numbers  devoted  to  agricultural  education  appeared  from 
time  to  time. 

41.  The  Agricultural  College  Extension  Bulletin.  A.  B.  Graham,  editor. 
Columbus,  Ohio:  Ohio  State  Agricultural  College.  Vol.  I  began  October, 
1905. 

Each  volume  consists  of  nine  numbers  published  monthly.  Each  num- 
ber treats  some  subject  of  interest  to  teachers  and  pupils  of  rural  schools. 
Each  year  one  number  is  devoted  to  the  centralized  schools  in  Ohio. 


138      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

42.  New  Hampshire  College  School  Bulletin.  E.  Dwight  Sanderson,  editor. 
Durham,  N.H.:  New  Hampshire  State  College  of  Agriculture.  Vol,  I 
began  May,  1908. 

This  is  a  quarterly  publication  in  the  interest  of  New  Hampshire 
schools.  Contents  of  Vol.  I,  No.  i,  Agriculture  through  the  Rural  Schools; 
No.  2,  Soil  Studies;    No.  3,  Seeds  and  Seedlings;    No.  4,  Seed  Testing. 

43.  The  Nature  Guard.    A.  E.  Stone,  editor.    Kingston,  R.I. :  Rhode  Island 

State  College  of  Agriculture.    Vol.  I  began  October,  1899. 

This  leaflet  is  issued  monthly  from  October  to  May.  It  is  the  ofRcial 
organ  of  the  Nature  Guard  and  Junior  League  of  Improvement  Societies  of 
Rhode  Island.  Each  number  has  from  four  to  eight  pages  and  is  usually 
devoted  to  one  subject;  for  example,  the  title  of  No.  63  is  Experiments 
toith  Soils. 

44.  West  Virginia  School  Agriculture.  D,  W.  Working,  editor.  Morgan- 
town,  W.Va. :  West  Virginia  College  of  Agriculture. 

Vol.  I  of  this  publication  began  in  November,  191  o.  It  is  published 
monthly  from  November  to  April  inclusive.  Each  number  is  devoted  to 
some  special  phase  of  agriculture  adapted  for  use  in  public-school  instruc- 
tion, e.g.,  Nos.  4-5  (pp.  67-88),  Vol.  I,  to  "Judging  and  Testing  Corn." 
It  is  arranged  in  a  series  of  lessons :  The  purpose  of  corn  judging ;  How 
judging  is  done ;  The  score  card ;  Selecting  seed  corn ;  Will  the  corn 
grow ;  Will  the  corn  yield ;  Will  the  corn  mature ;  Is  the  com  improving ; 
The  profit  in  testing  corn ;  Making  the  tester ;  Making  the  test ;  Conclu- 
sions from  the  test. 

45.  Public  School  Agriculture.  W.  R.  Hart.  Amherst,  Mass.:  Massachu- 
setts State  College  of  Agriculture.    Special  Bulletin  (1909),  32. 

This  is  the  Report  of  the  Committee  Appointed  at  the  Conference  on 
Agricultural  Science  at  Amherst,  Mass.,  1908.  Fifty-four  exercises  in  ele- 
mentary  agriculture  are   outlined. 

46.  Proceedings  of  the  Conference  on  Agricultural  Science.    Ibid.  (1908),  43. 

Four  papers  are  published  as  follows :  "The  Place  of  the  School  Gar- 
den in  the  Development  of  Science  Teaching,"  W.  A.  Baldwin ;  "Adminis- 
trative Phases  of  Agricultural  Instruction,"  C.  H.  Robison ;  "Physics  and 
Agriculture,"  R.  W.  Guss ;   "Chemistry  and  Agriculture,"  Charles  Wellington. 

47 .  Proceedings  of  the  Second  A  nnual  Conference  on  A  gricultural  Science.  Ibid. 
(1909),  59. 

Six  papers  are  published :  "Nature-Study  and  Agriculture  in  Rural 
Schools,"  M.  A.  Bigelow ;  "Elementary  Agriculture  as  a  Subject  of  Study 
in  the  Grades,"  W.  R.  Hart ;  "Some  Connections  between  School  Studies 
and  Home  and  Industrial  Activities,"  Hannah  P.  Waterman ;  "Relation  of 
the  Physical  Sciences  to  Agriculture,"  S.  B.  Hasskell ;  "Biological  Sciences 
in  their  Relation  to  Agricultural  Science,"  E.  D.  Sanderson. 

48.  Proceedings  of  the  Third  Annual  Conference  on  Agricultural  Education. 
Ibid.  (1910),  30. 

Seven  papers  are  published :  "Co-ordination  between  Garden  Work 
and  Nature  Work  and  Book  Work,"  G.  L.  Green ;  "How  Agriculture  Put 
Life  into  a  Rural  School,"  Ethel  H.  Nash;  "The  Story  of  Pinehurst 
Gardener's  Club,"  A.  Green;  "Rural  School  and  Home  Gardens  during 
Summer,"    Elizabeth    Hill ;     "Gardening    in    the    Schools    of    Springfield," 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  139 

Fannie  A.  Stebbins ;  "Home  Gardens  of  the  Worcester  Public  Schools," 
E.  R.  Thayer;  "Some  Suggestions  for  Beginning  Garden  Work,"  W.  R. 
Hart. 

49.  Extension  Bulletins  Relating  to  Agricultural  Education.  Illinois  State 
Agricultural  College,  Urbana,  111. 

Consolidation  of  Country  Schools,  E.  Davenport  (1903,  2d  ed.,  1904), 
56.  Developing  the  Farm  Boy,  Fred  H.  Rankin  (1905),  26.  The  Grout 
Farm  Encampment,  Arthur  J.  Bill  (1906),  42;  Second  Encampment,  ibid. 
(1907),  40.  Dairy  Lessons,  Wilbur  J.  Fraser  (1907),  four  parts,  one  lesson 
in  each.  The  Next  Step  in  Agricultural  Education,  E.  Davenport  (1908), 
22.  Sugar  Beets  and  How  to  Grow  Them,  Fred  H.  Rankin  (1908),  7.  How 
to  Run  Farm  Machinery,  Fred  R.  Crane  (1908),  39. 

$0.  Rural  Education:  The  Soil.  R.  H.  Emberson.  Columbia,  Mo.  :  Bulletin 
of  the  University  of  Missouri,  X,  No.  10  (1910),  8. 

This  bulletin  is  intended  for  use  of  teachers  in  the  rural  schools  but 
may  be  used  by  pupils  of  advanced  grades.  It  consists  of  six  lessons : 
How  soils  are  formed ;  The  kinds  of  soil ;  Soil  texture ;  Soil  tilth ;  The 
capillary  water  in  soils ;    The  free  water  in  soils. 

51.  Public  School  Agriculture.  T.  I.  Mairs.  State  College,  Pa.:  The  Penn- 
sylvania State  College  Bulletin,  IV,  No.  5  (1910),  13. 

This  bulletin  contains  a  general  discussion  of  agriculture  with  special 
reference  to  public  schools,  list  of  books  and  printed  matter,  equipment  for 
agricultural  instruction,  suggested  course  for  second-  and  third-class  high 
schools. 

52.  .4  Manual  for  High  Schools.  Josiah  Main.  Knoxville,  Tenn.:  Ten- 
nessee State  College  of  Agriculture,  Special  Bulletin  (1909),  32. 

A  scheme  for  correlating  agriculture  with  other  high-school  sciences  is 
worked  in  with  considerable  detail. 

53.  Rural  School  Agriculture.  W.  M.  Hayes,  et  al.  St.  Anthony  Park,  Minn. : 
University  of  Minnesota,  Bulletin  No.  i  (1903),  200. 

"Exercises  in  this  bulletin  ....  have  been  prepared  for  use  of  teach- 
ers in  the  rural  schools  of  Minnesota."  This  publication  is  of  especial 
interest  because  it  represents  one  of  the  first  efforts  of  agricultural  colleges 
to  assist  teachers  by  preparing  concrete  lessons  in  an  agricultural  subject. 
A  revised  edition  of  this  bulletin  appeared  as  Bulletin  No.  2  in  1907.  A 
comparison  of  the  two  bulletins  shows  an  interesting  shifting  point  of 
view  as  to  matter  presented  and  method  of  presentation. 

54.  Suggestions  for  Garden  Work  in  California  Schools.  E.  B.  Babcock, 
Berkeley,  Cal.:  California  State  Agricultural  College,  Circular  46  (1909), 
48. 

This  contains  a  history  of  the  movement,  what  teachers  have  done, 
what  teachers  can  do,  instructions  for  teachers  beginning  garden  work, 
how  to  secure  special  preparation  for  teaching  nature-study  within  Cali- 
fornia, and  list  of  publications. 

55.  Tree  Growing  in  the  Public  Schools.  E.  B.  Babcock,  University  of 
California.    Ibid.,  Cir.  59  (191 1),  19. 

All  the  necessary  directions  for  tree  growing  are  given.  The  circular 
discusses  tree  growing  in  the  public  schools,  best  trees  for  children  to 
grow,  how  to  grow  trees,  boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  tree  seed  exchange,  best 
free  literature  on  tree  study,  best  books  on  trees. 


I40      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

56.  "Agriculture  in  the  Public  Schools."     C.  A.  Stebbins,  editor.     San 

Francisco,  Cal. :   Town  and  Country  Journal. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  year  191 1,  a  series  of  lessons  in  agriculture 
for  rural  schools  have  appeared  biweekly  in  this  journal.  These  lessons 
are  especially  well  outlined  for  teachers,  giving  general  aim,  specific  lesson 
aim,  method   of   approach,   and  lesson  in   detail. 

57.  An  Elementary  Laboratory  Study  of  Crops.  Jos.  A.  Jeffery.  Lansing, 
Mich.:  State  Department  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  26  (1907),  28. 

An  Elementary  Laboratory  Study  in  Soils.    Jos.  A.  Jeffery.    Ibid., 
Bulletin  No.  27  (1908),  36. 

An  Elementary  Course  in  Horticulture.     S.  W.  Fletcher.    Ibid.,  Bulletin 
No.  28  (1908),  31. 

58.  The  Study  of  Farm  Crops,  Farm  Animals,  Horticulture  and  Agriculture. 

A.  D.  Shamel,  E.  Davenport,  and  J.  S.  Blair.    Taylorville,  111.:  C.  M. 

Parker,  The  School  News  (1900-4). 

About  fifty  short  articles  on  the  above  subjects  were  published  in  the 
School  News  and  afterward  reprinted  by  the  publisher  in  form  of  leaflets, 
and  sold  at  one  cent  each  in  quantities  of  ten  or  more.  They  had  a  wide 
sale  and  no  doubt  contributed  much  toward  arousing  an  interest  in  agri- 
culture in  the  public  schools  of  Illinois. 

59.  Correspondence  Courses  in  Agriculture.  T.  S.  Mairs.  State  College,  Pa.: 
Pennsylvania  State  College  of  Agriculture,  Special  Bulletin  (1909),  16. 

This  bulletin  contains  announcement  of  "thirty-one  courses  of  study. 
Each  course  consists  of  from  five  to  nine  lessons  and  is  expected  to  occupy 
the  time  of  the  student  for  a  week  or  two."  This  study  is  intended  for 
the  farmer,  the  dairyman,  the  gardener,  the  nurseryman,  the  florist,  the 
teacher,  and  others  who   may  be  interested. 

60.  Nebraska  Boys'  and  Girls'  Association  State  Contest  and  Convention. 
Val.  Keyser  and  E.  C.  Bishop.  Lincoln,  Neb. :  University  of  Nebraska 
Bulletin,  Ser.  XIV,  No.  12  (1909),  20. 

This  bulletin  contains  announcement  of  the  State  Convention  of  1910 
of  the  Boys'  and  Girls'  Association  of  Nebraska.  Other  bulletins  concern- 
ing this  Association  have  appeared  from  time  to  time,  e.g.,  Selecting  Corn 
for  the  Contest,  Ser.  12,  No.  25;  Planting  Corn  for  the  Contest,  Ser.  12, 
No.  12  (1907);  Selecting  Potatoes  for  the  Contest,  Ser.  13,  No.  11  (1908); 
Cooking  and  Sewing,  Ser.   13,  No.  14  (1908). 

61.  "Boys'  Agricultural  Clubs."  D.  J.  Crosby.  Washington,  D.C.:  U.S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  for  1904,  489-96. 

This  article  gives  a  description  of  "the  boys'  exhibit  of  corn  at  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition,  the  development  of  boys'  clubs  in  Illinois 
and  other  states,  and  school  fairs ;  and  discusses  the  educational  value  of 
the  work  done  by  such  organizations." 

62.  Outline  of  the  Courses  in  Science.  Madison,  Wis.:  Board  of  Regents  of 
State  Normal  Schools  (1901),  32. 

Each  of  the  subjects  of  instruction  in  the  state  normal  schools  is  briefly 
outlined.  About  seven  pages  are  devoted  to  agriculture  and  include  pur- 
pose of  subject,  scope  (soil,  plant  and  crops,  animals  and  stock),  and  plan. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  141 

6s •  "Shall  Teachers  Be  Prepared  to  Give  Instruction  in  Elementary  Agri- 
culture?" B.  M.  Davis.  The  Western  Journal  of  Education,  May, 
1906,  5-15. 

This  is  a  report  submitted  to  the  Joint  Board  of  the  California  State 
Normal  School  Trustees  at  its  annual  meeting  held  at  Chico,  Cal.,  April 
IS,  1906.  It  discusses  the  organization  of  agricultural  education  in  the 
United  States,  agriculture  in  the  elementary  schools,  work  in  Canada, 
N.E.A.  report  on  industrial  education  in  schools  for  rural  communities, 
work  of  the  normal  schools,  the  problem  as  concerns  the  California  normal 
schools  including  a  tabulation  of  answers  to  questionnaire  sent  to  all  the 
county  superintendents  of  the  state,  and  a  discussion  of  the  work  of  the 
normal  school. 

64.  "What  Has  Been  Done  by  Normal  Schools  and  Agricultural  Colleges  for 
Popular  Education  in  Agriculture."  E.  E.  Balcomb.  Proceedings  of  the 
National  Edux^ation  Association  for  1907,  1069-75. 

This  report  is  a  summary  to  answers  to  letters  to  the  president  of  each 
agricultural  college,  to  each  state  normal  school,  and  to  certain  other  schools 
of  the  United  States. 

65.  Education  for  Efficiency.  E.  Davenport.  Boston:  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
(1909),  184. 

Its  subtitle  is  "A  discussion  of  certain  phases  of  the  problem  of  uni- 
versal education  with  special  reference  to  academic  ideals  and  methods." 
The  book  is  in  two  parts :  the  first,  a  discussion  from  general  educational 
standpoint  including  education  for  efficiency,  industrial  education  with 
special  reference  to  high  school,  as  a  phase  of  the  problem  of  universal 
education,  educative  value  of  labor,  culture  aim  and  unity  in  education ; 
the  second,  an  illustration  of  the  principles  discussed  in  first  part  as  ap- 
plied to  agriculture — including  agriculture  in  the  high  school,  in  the  ele- 
mentary school,  in  the  normal  school,  and  the  development  of  agriculture — 
what  it  is  and  what  it  means. 

66.  "The  Organic  Field  of  Nature-Study."  George  H.  Hudson.  Nature- 
Study  Review,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  5  (1907),  129-35. 

A  scheme  is  given  outlining  the  subject  in  considerable  detail  in  two 
parts ;  one,  the  physical  or  practical,  the  other,  the  psychical.  Both  are 
amplified  by  a  discussion  which  follows. 

67.  School  Gardens  for  California  Schools.  B.  M.  Davis.  Chico,  Cal.: 
State  Normal  School  Bulletin  No.  i  (1905),  79. 

This  is  a  manual  for  teachers.  It  discusses  the  history  of  school 
gardens  and  their  educational  importance,  the  plant  and  its  relations,  plant 
propagation,  instruction  including  aim  and  scope,  practical  work,  correlative 
subjects,  adaption  to  school  conditions,  etc.  The  annotated  bibliography 
of  nearly  three  hundred  titles  is  a  summary  of  the  literature  of  the  sub- 
ject up  to  1905. 

68.  Normal  School  Instruction  in  Agriculture.  N.  J.  Abbey.  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Circular  90  (1909),  31. 

This  circular  "sets  forth  in  a  brief  way  the  manner  in  which  agricul- 
ture is  taught  at  the  Maysville  State  Normal  School,  No.  Dakota."  It 
contains    a    discussion    of    why    normal    schools    should    train    teachers    in 


142      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

agriculture  and  the  place  of  agriculture  in  the  normal  school  curriculum. 
Most  of  the  circular  is  a  detailed  account  of  the  work,  including  textbook 
instruction,  class  exercises,  laboratory  instruction,  typical  laboratory  exer- 
cises, apparatus,  the  school  garden,  the  model  school,  visiting  a  rural  school, 
field  excursions,  methods,  correlation,  and  difficulties. 

69.  Normal  Agricultural  Society.  Charles  R.  Weeks.  Peru,  Neb.:  State 
Normal  School,  Special  Cir.  (1909),  i. 

This  circular  gives  history,  purposes,  and  plans  of  this  organization. 

70.  Western  Illinois  State  Normal  Experiment  Field.  J.  T.  Johnson. 
Macomb,  111.:  State  Normal  School,  Cir.  i  (1907),  4. 

The  circular  contains  statement  of  purpose,  location,  and  plans  of  con- 
ducting the  soil  experiment  field. 

71.  .4  Correlated  Course  of  Study  in  Agriculture,  Geography,  and  Physiology 
for  Rural  Schools.  E.  A.  Cockefair.  Cape  Girardeau,  Mo.:  State 
Normal  School,  Special  Bulletin  (1909),  63. 

It  contains  daily  program  of  recitation ;  general  outline  including 
such  subjects  as  seed,  corn  judging,  corn  selection,  corn  breeding,  how  corn 
grows,  the  soil,  crops,  foods,  live  stock  judging,  markets,  dairying,  garden- 
ing, fruit  growing,  forestry,  cooking,  sewing,  home  decoration ;  elaboration 
of  outline. 

72.  Elementary  Horticulture  for  California  Schools.    C.  F.  Palmer.    Los 

Angeles,  Cal.:  State  Normal  School,  Bui.  (1910),  76. 

The  following  subjects  are  discussed:  The  school  garden;  The  lath- 
house  ;  Seed-sowing  in  boxes ;  Transplanting ;  Propagation  of  plants ; 
Potting  and  repotting  of  plants ;  House  plants ;  Window  boxes  and  their 
care ;  The  planting  and  care  of  bulbs ;  The  inside  miniature  farmstead ; 
Lawnmaking  and  care;  Ornamental  gardening;  Where  to  obtain  seeds 
and  plants ;    Publications  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

73.  Agriculture  and  Nature-Study  for  Rural  Schools.  H.  W.  Hochbaum. 
Greeley,  Colo.:  State  Normal  School  Bulletin,  Ser.  10,  No.  5  (1910),  44. 

The  subject  is  discussed  as  follows :  Why  the  rural  schools  are  in- 
efficient ;  The  work  of  the  rural  school  needs  to  be  redirected ;  The  aims 
in  teaching  nature-study  and  agriculture ;  How  to  redirect  the  work  of  rural 
schools ;  Some  suggestions  for  nature-study  and  agriculture ;  Outline  of 
subjects  for  nature-study  and  agriculture. 

74.  Educational  Agriculture.  Josiah  Main.  Hays,  Kan.:  Western  State 
Normal  School  Bulletin,  II,  No.  3  (1910),  74. 

This  bulletin  consists  of  three  parts :  Part  I,  Introduction :  Limita- 
tions of  the  field  as  a  realm  of  knowledge;  Part  II,  Organization; 
Motives,  Genetic  psychology  as  an  aid  to  organization,  The  kinaesthetic 
factor  in  apperception — reaction  and  inhibition,  A  problem  of  readjustment — 
position  of  the  various  sciences :  Formal  discipline  and  its  transfer : 
Humanistic  science,  applied  science,  and  agriculture ;  Agricultural  arts 
— habit  V.  judgment,  Collateral  or  extra  program  agriculture,  The  essential 
order  of  presentation.  Other  correlated  subjects,  Retardation — admission 
— graduation — and  accrediting  of  students.  Part  III,  Equipment :  The 
laboratory,  Plota  and  grounds;    Agricultural  literature. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  143 

75.  Course  in  Nature-Study  and  Elementary  Agriculture.    Riley  O.  Johnson. 

Chico,  Cal.:  State  Normal  School,  Special  Circular  (1908),  8. 

The  work  outlined  in  this  circular  is  designed  for  the  ungraded  schools 
of  California.  There  are  three  parts:  (i)  an  outline  of  the  work,  (2) 
specimen  lessons,  and  (3)  a  list  of  references. 

76.  Rural  Industrial  Education.  B.  M.  Davis.  Oxford,  Ohio:  Miami 
University  Bulletin,  Ser.  VIII,  No.  9  (1910),  15. 

A  general  discussion  of  the  problem  of  rural  industrial  education  with 
especial  reference  to  Ohio  conditions.  This  discussion  is  followed  by  an 
outline  of  course  for  high-school  teachers  offered  in  the  Ohio  State  Normal 
College,  Miami  University. 

77.  "Historical  Sketch  of  the  National  Educational  Association."  Z. 
Richards.  Proceedings  of  the  National  Educational  Association  for 
i8gi,  118-33. 

78.  "Bibliography  of  Topics  from  1857-1907."    Ibid.  (1906),  659-730. 

This  is  a  classified  list  under  fifty-nine  heads. 

79.  "Should  Rural  Schools  Introduce  Agricvdture,  Chemistry,  Agricultural 
Botany,  or  Arboriculture?"    Ergraff  De  Kovalevsky.    Ibid.  (1893), 

304-7- 

The  writer  concludes  that  "instruction  in  the  rural  schools  can  and 
should  have   an   agricultural  bearing." 

80.  "Report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve  on  Rural  Schools."  Ibid.  (1897), 
385-582. 

This  is  probably  the  most  complete  and  important  contribution  of  rural 
schools  in  American  educational  literature  up  to  the  date  of  its  publication. 
Besides  a  full  discussion  of  the  four  phases  of  the  subject  there  are  nine- 
teen appendices  devoted  to  such  subjects  as  transportation  of  pupils,  en- 
richment of  the  rural-school  course,  the  rural-school  problem,  the  course  of 
study,  the  farm  as  a  center  of  interest,  etc. 

81.  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Industrial  Education  in  Schools  for  Rural 
Communities.  Publications  of  National  Educational  Association:  Re- 
port of  Special  Committee  (1905),  87. 

This  report  contains  argument  for  industrial  work,  scope  of  work, 
statements  of  what  kind  of  work  was  being  done  in  the  different  types  of 
schools  in  which  a  beginning  in  industrial  education  had  been  made,  and 
the  desirability  of  a  new  type  of  secondary  school  of  distinctively  indus- 
trial character  and  adapted  to  the  needs  of  rural  communities. 

82.  Idem.  "  Supplementary  Report."  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education 
Association  (1907),  409-46. 

83.  Idem.  "Second  Report."    Ibid.  (1908),  385-448. 

84.  "Conference  of  National  Committee  on  Agricultural  Education."  Ibid. 
(1907),  1063-84. 


144      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

85.  Proceedings  of  the  Nineteenth  Annual  Convention  of  the  Association  of 
American  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations.  U.S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Bui.  164  (1905),  189. 

In  the  detailed  account  of  the  convention  considerable  attention  is 
given  to  agricultural  education :  Agricultural  education  in  the  National 
Education  Association ;  Methods  of  teaching  agriculture ;  Address  of  the 
U.S.  Commissioner  of  Education. 

86.  "Educational  Periodicals."    U.S.  Bureau  of  Education.     Report  of  the 

Commissioner  (1906),  257-59. 

This  is  a  list  of  educational  periodicals  in  the  United  States  in  1906  that 
are  in  the  library  of  the  Bureau  of  Education. 

87.  "Henry  Barnard."     C.  H.  Thurber.    School  Review,  VIII  (1900),  505-6. 

A  tribute  to  the  life  and  work  of  Henry  Barnard. 

88.  "Fellenburg  and  Manual  Labor  Schools."  Henry  Barnard.  Barnard's 
Journal  of  Education,  XV  (1865),  232-34. 

An  account  of  the  influence  of  Fellenburg's  Agricultural  School  at 
Hofwyl  on  the  establishment  of  similar  schools  in  this  country. 

"Plan  of  an  Agricultural  School."    John  A.  Porter.    Ibid.,  I  (1856), 

32^35- 

89.  "Josiah  Holbrook."    Henry  Barnard.    Ibid.,  VII  (i860),  229-47. 
89a.  "Primary  Instruction  by  Object  Lessons."    Ibid.,  XII  (1862),  605-45. 

This  is  a  report  of  a  committee  selected  by  the  Board  of  Education  of 
the  city  of  Oswego,  N.Y.,  to  attend  an  examination  of  the  primary  schools 
of  that  city  with  special  reference  to  an  investigation  of  the  system  of 
object- teaching  recently  introduced  into  these  schools. 

90.  "Pestalozzi,  De  Fellenburg  and  Wehrli,  and  Industrial  Training."  Ibid., 
X  (1876),  8192. 

Republished  from  the  Transactions  of  the  National  Association  for  the 
Promotion  of  Social  Science,   1858. 

91.  "Preventive  and  Reformatory  Education."  Henry  Barnard.  Ibid., 
Ill  (1858),  561-818. 

A  very  complete  discussion  of  the  subject  including  the  work  in  for- 
eign countries  as  well  as  in  our  own  country. 

92.  "Scientific  Instruction."    Henry  Barnard.    Ibid.,  XXI  (1871),  807. 

93.  "Newer  Ideas  in  Agricultural  Education."  L.  H.  Bailey.  Educational 
Review,  XX  (1900),  377-82. 

94.  "A  Significant  Factor  in  Agricultural  Education."  Kenyon  L.  Butter- 
field.    Educatiofial  Review,  XXI  (1901),  301-9. 

Extension  work  advocated. 

95.  "Place  of  Nature-Study,  School  Gardens  and  Elementary  Agriculture  in 

Our   School    System."    J.    R.   Jewell.    Pedagogical   Seminary,   XIII 

(1906),  273-92. 

This  is  preliminary  to  a  more  complete  presentation  of  the  same 
subject  (25). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  145 

96.  "Agricultural  High  Schools."     Frederick  E.  Bolton.  School  Review , 
XVI  (1908),  56-58. 

An  editorial  note. 

97.  "The  Agricultural  High  School."    Arthur  D.  Cromwell.    Ihid.,  198- 
200. 

A  rejoinder  to    (96). 

98.  "The  Correlation  of  High-School  Science  and  Agriculture."    Josiah 
Main.    Education,  XXX  (1909),  135-45. 

99.  "Shall  Secondary  Agriculture  Be  Taught  as  a  Separate  Science  ?"     G.  A. 
Bricker.    Ibid.,  352-56. 

A  view  directly  opposite  to  that  expressed  in  (98)   is  presented. 

IOC.  "The  Methods,  Content  and  Purpose  of  Biologic  Science  in  the  Secondary- 
Schools  of  the  United  States."  G.  W.  Hunter.  School  Science  and 
Mathematics,  X  (1910),  i-io,  103-11. 

loi.  "Introduction"  (to  first  number).  M.  A.  Bigelow.  Nature-Study 
Review,  I  (1905),  1-2. 

102.  "School  Work  in  Agriculture."  D.  O.  Barto  (Taylorville,  111.).  School 
News,  XXI  (1907). 

A  department  of  this  magazine  for  aiding  teachers  to  make  use  of  the 
prescribed  state  course  of  study  in  elementary  agriculture. 

103.  "Lessons  in  Agriculture  and  Home  Economics."    E.  C.  Bishop  (Lincoln, 

Neb.).    Nebraska  Teacher,  XII  (1910). 

A  series  of  articles  to  aid  teachers  in  their  work  with  the  Nebraska  boys' 
and  girls'   clubs. 

104.  "Learning  by  Doing  for  the  Farmer  Boy."    O.  J.  Kern.    Review  of 

Reviews,  XXVIII  (1903),  456-61. 

A  description  of  the  Farmer  Boys'  Club  organized  in  Winnebago 
County,  111.,  February  22,  1902.  It  includes  method  of  organization,  educa- 
tional excursions,  experimental  work  of  the  boys,  local  meetings  of  the  club, 
the  club  and  the  farmers'  institute,  future  outlook  of  the  club.  There  is 
also  a  short  account  of  the  first  consolidated  school  in  Illinois. 

105.  "Common-Sense   Country   Schools."    Adele   Marie    Shaw.     World's 

Work,  VIII  (1904),  4881-94. 

An  illustrated  account  of  O.  J.  Kern's  work  among  the  rural  schools 
of  Winnebago  County,  111.  It  contains  a  good  account  of  the  Farmer  Boys' 
Club. 

io6.  "The  New  Education  for  Farm  Children."    Willet  M.  Hays.    Review 

of  Reviews,  XXVIII  (1903),  449-55- 

The  article  is  introduced  by  a  general  discussion  of  the  educational 
situation,  concluding  that  there  should  be  a  school  system  adapted  to  rural 
conditions.  A  scheme  is  presented  for  an  articulated  system  of  education 
adapted  to  rural  needs:  (i)  consolidated  rural  school;  (2)  agricultural  high 
school;  (3)  agricultural  college.  This  is  one  of  the  first  publications  of  the 
author's  views  on  a  system  of  rural  education.  His  present  views  on  this 
subject  have  been  reviewed  at  some  length  in  a  previous  article  of  this 
series   (15). 


146      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

107.  "Teaching  Farmers'  Children  on  the  Ground."    George  Iles.    World's 
Work,  VI  (1903),  3415-20. 

After  a  general  discussion  of  rural  education,  its  needs  and  short- 
comings, the  author  gives  an  account  of  the  program  for  rural  educational 
reform,  known  as  the  Macdonald  Consolidated  Rural  School  Movement, 
which  was  to  take  effect  in  Canada  the  following  September.  A  large  num- 
ber of  interesting  facts  are  given  not  only  concerning  this  proposed  reform 
but  also  concerning  the  agricultural  work  in  general  in  Canada. 

108.  "Farmer  Children  Need  Farmer  Studies."    Clarence  H.  Poe.    World's 
Work,  VI  (1903),  3760-62. 

Reviewed  in  text. 

109.  "Agricultural  High  Schools"  (Editorial).    Independent,  LVIII  (1905), 
334-36. 

1 10.  "  Two  Clear  Aims  in  Education  "  (Editorial) .    World's  Work,  XII  (1906) , 
7706-7. 

These  aims  are  (i)  training  for  practical  purposes,  the  machinery  of 
which  has  been  perfected  only  for  the  professions;  (2)  training  for  culture 
where  public  good  is  put  before  personal  aims. 

111.  "Agricultiural  Education  in  the  United  States."    J.  C.  Mead.    Nine- 
teenth Century,  LX  (1906),  299-306. 

A  popular  historical  account  dealing  mainly  with  agricultural  colleges. 

112.  "Agriculture  in  the  Common  Schools"  (Editorial).    Independent,  LXIII 
(1907),  1508-9. 

Two  questions  are  raised :  ( i )  Are  the  sciences  underlying  agriculture 
to  be  taught?  (2)  Where  will  teachers  be  found  to  give  adequate  instruc- 
tion along  such  lines?  Both  questions  are  answered,  the  first  by  making 
use  of  pupils'  everyday  experiences,  the  second  through  training  schools 
for  teachers. 

113.  "New  Work  in  Education."    World's  Work,  XVI  (1908),  10453-62. 

Reviewed  in  text. 

114.  "Catchmg  Them  Young."    F.  G.  Moorhead.    Technical  World,  XI 
(1909),  612-18. 

Reviewed  in  text. 

115.  "The  Martian  and  the  Farm"   (Editorial).    Outlook,  XXIX  (1909), 

433-34- 

Reviewed  in  text. 

116.  "Training  for  Farm  Life."    D.  H.  Smalley.    Outlook,  XXIX  (1909), 
811-12. 

A  reply  to  (115). 

117.  "The  Automatic   Farm."    Wm.   Halstead.    Outlook,   XXIX   (1909), 
812-13. 

A  reply  to  (115). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  147 

1 18.  "Agricxilture  the  Basis  of  Education."    0.  F.  Cook.    Monist,  XVII 

(1907),  347-64- 

Reviewed  in  text. 

119.  "Farm  Life  as  a  Basis  of  Practical  Education."    Craftsman,  XVI  (1909), 

243-45- 

Some  of  the  plans  of  the  Craftsman  Farms  are  set  forth.  Active  farm 
operation  is  regarded  as  the  first  step  in  creating  an  ideal  school  environ- 
ment. "To  use  the  idea  of  education  seems  as  big  and  interesting  as 
the  whole  of  life  itself.  And  the  farm  work  which  is  necessary  to  make 
the  land  productive  for  our  own  maintenance  and  also  to  make  the 
ground  attractive  to  the  eye  seems  to  us  to  afford  a  series  of  experiments, 
the  educational  value  of  which  no  scientific  laboratory  could  equal." 

120.  "Need  for  Agricultural  Education."    D,  Y.  Thomas.    AnncUs  of  the 
American  Academy,  XXXV  (1910),  150-55. 

The  purpose  of  this  paper  is  to  "emphasize  the  advisability"  of  extend- 
ing the  work  in  agricultural  education.  "Education  must  be  democratized 
and  made  to  subserve  the  economic  interest  of  man.  This  will  not  kill  the 
cultural  school  but  foster  it.  The  man  who  wants  to  be  a  lawyer  or  a 
doctor  or  a  teacher  or  a  journalist  will  have  a  hundred  opportunities  where 
he  now  has  one." 

121.  "Social  Problems  of  American  Farmers:    Rural  Education."    Kenyon 
L.  BuTTERFiELD.    American  Journal  of  Sociology,  X  (1905),  615-19. 

Reviewed  in  text. 

122.  "State  Organizations  for  Agriculture."    Encyclopedia  of  American  Agri- 
culture, IV  (1909),  328-39. 

A  brief  general  account  is  given,  followed  by  short  sketches  of  the 
various  state  organizations. 

123.  "Agricultural  Education."    A.  W.  Oilman.    Seventh  Annual  Report  of 
the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  of  the  State  of  Maine  (1908),  11-12. 

Reviewed  in  text. 

124.  An  Address — no  title.    P.  G.  Holden.    Annual  Report  of  the  Nebraska 
State  Board  of  Agriculture  (1909),  112-37. 

A  stenographic  report  of  an  address  supposed  to  be  upon  corn  but  a 
considerable  portion  of  it  relates  to  rural  education,  and  offers  many 
valuable  suggestions  on  this  subject. 

125.  "Some  Rural  Problems."    Wallace.    Ibid.  (1910),  124-39. 

Four  problems  are  discussed:  maintenance  of  soil  fertility,  farm  labor, 
education,  and  socialization  of  farm  life.  Mr.  Wallace  was  a  member  of 
the  Country  Life  Commission.  His  discussion  of  rural  education,  there- 
fore, is  of  more  than  ordinary  interest. 

126.  "Rural  Education."    A.  C.  True.    Annual  Report  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Department  of  Agriculture  (1907),  231-36. 

General  improvement  of  rural  schools  is  regarded  as  necessary  and 
certain  to  be  brought  about.  Better  teaching,  consolidation,  attention  given 
to  nature-study  and  agriculture  in  public  schools  are  suggested  as  means 
of  improvement. 


148      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

127.  "  The  Most  Useful  School  in  the  Country. "    D.J.  Crosby.    Ibid.  ( 1 909) , 

257-63- 

Two  small  country  schools  are  described  in  considerable  detail  as  illus- 
trating the  possibilities  of  a  rural  school:  one  at  Calvert  Center,  Md.,  the 
other  at  Waterford,  Pa. 

128.  Steps  in  Agriculture.  S.  M.  Jordon.  Monthly  Bulletin,  Missouri 
State  Board  of  Agriculture,  VIII,  No.  8  (1910),  136. 

This  contains  simple  studies  to  help  "teachers  interest  our  boys  and 
girls  in  better  farming"  as  follows:  the  stand  of  corn,  leaves  or  blades, 
roots,  flowers  and  blossoms,  yield,  corn  judging,  score  card,  seed  selection, 
weeds,  insects,  flies,  grafting  and  budding,  crossing,  diseases  of  plants, 
wheat  and  oats,   clovers  and  cowpeas. 

129.  Boys'  and  Girls'  Contests.  A.  E.  Chamberlain.  South  Dakota  State 
Board  of  Agriculture,  Special  Bulletin  (1910),  1-15. 

Reviewed  in  text. 

130.  The  School  of  Agriculture  at  the  State  Fair.  S.  E.  Andrews.  Okla- 
homa State  Board  of  Agriculture,  Monthly  Press  Bulletin,  Series  19 10, 
No.  7  (September),  8-9. 

An  account  in  detail  of  how  the  school  is  to  be  conducted. 

131.  Boys'  State  Fair  School.  Springfield,  111.:  Illinois  State  Fair  Association, 
Announcement  (1911),  15. 

This  gives  an  account  of  the  first  annual  Boys'  State  Fair  School  held 
in  1 910.  "The  aim  of  the  school  is  to  offer  to  a  well-selected  body  of 
young  men  the  means  for  systematic  observation  and  study"  of  the  great 
agricultural  and  mechanical  exhibits  of  the  state  fair. 

132.  Agricultural  Schools.  E.  J.  Martin.  Office  of  Commissioner  of 
Agriculture,  Commerce  and  Industries  of  South  Carolina,  Sixth  Annual 
Report  (1909),  93-94- 

An  account  of  agricultural  demonstration  work  in  connection  with 
certain  high   schools. 

133.  Agricultural  Fair  Associations  and  Their  Utilization  in  Agricultural  Educa- 
tion and  Improvement.  John  Hamilton.  U.S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Cir.  109  (1911),  23. 

"This  circular  is  the  result  of  extended  study  of  the  conditions  that 
exist  in  the  various  states  in  connection  with  county  fairs,  and  is  a  contribu- 
tion toward  increasing  their  usefulness  by  suggesting  lines  of  effort  along 
which  they  can  act  for  the  betterment  of  educational,  social,  and  economic 
conditions  in  rural  communities." 

134.  History  of  Farmers'  Institutes  in  the  United  States.  John  Hamilton. 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Bulletin 
174  (1906),  1-96. 

As  the  name  indicates,  it  is  a  historical  account  of  farmers'  institutes 
in  the  United  States.  It  is  divided  into  five  parts :  introduction,  historians, 
government  aid  to  institutes,  American  Association  of  Farmers'  Insti- 
tute Workers,  institutes  in  the  several  states  and  territories. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  149 

135.  "The  Farmers'  Institutes  in  the  United  States,  1908."  John  Hamilton. 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Annual 
Report  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  (1908),  289-335. 

A  summary  of  the  work  of  farmers'  institutes  for  1908  giving  insti- 
tutes held,  sessions,  attendance,  appropriations,  and  other  data  concerning 
the  year's  work. 

136.  The  Origin  of  the  Land  Grant  Act  of  1862  and  Some  Account  of  Its  Author. 
Edmund  J.  James.    University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  VIII,  No.  10  (1910), 

139- 

"It  is  proposed  to  prove  in  this  paper  that  Jonathan  B.  Turner,  at 
one  time  professor  in  Illinois  College  at  Jacksonville,  111.,  was  the  real 
father  of  the  so-called  Morrill  Act  of  July  2,  1862,  and  that  he  deserves 
the  credit  of  having  been  the  first  to  formulate  clearly  and  definitely  the 
plan  of  a  national  grant  of  land  to  each  state  in  the  Union  for  the  pro- 
motion of  education  in  agricvdture  and  mechanic  arts,  and  having  inau- 
gurated and  continued  to  a  successful  issue  the  agitation  that  made  possible 
the  passage  of  the  bill  .  ..."  (p.  7). 

A  reprint  of  the  Turner  pamphlet,  "Industrial  Universities,"  is  ap- 
pended. This  contains  an  excellent  discussion  of  industrial  education,  much 
of   which    has   present-day   application. 

137.  Michigan  State  Association  of  Farmers'  Clubs.  Proceedings  of  the 
Seventeenth  Annual  Session  (1909),  56. 

Besides  a  report  of  the  proceedings  there  is  included  resolutions  re- 
garding state  and  national  affairs,  and  constitution  and  by-laws  of  the 
Association. 

138.  "What  Shall  We  Teach  the  Farm  ChUd?"  H.  W.  Collinwood.  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  New  Jersey  State  Horticultural  Society,  Thirty-fifth  Annual 
Session  (1909),  169-74. 

Reviewed  in  text. 

139.  "Agriculture  in  Our  Public  Schools."  William  Langham.  Proceedings 
of  the  Iowa  State  Horticultural  Society,  XLIV  (1909),  147-54. 

Reviewed  in  text. 

140.  "Report  of  Committee  on  School  Gardens  and  Children's  Herbariums 
of  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society."  Transactions  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Horticultural  Society.     1894-1907. 

Beginning  with  1894  and  continuing  to  1907  these  reports  of  the  com- 
mittee on  children's  school  gardens  appeared  in  the  transactions  of  the 
Society.  After  1907  the  Society  discontinued  the  special  school-garden 
feature   of  its   meetings   and   of   its   transactions. 

141.  Boys'  and  Girls'  Agricultural  Clubs.  F.  W.  Howe.  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  385  (1910),  23. 

This  bulletin  contains  history,  plans,  and  recent  development  of  these 
clubs  under  the  following  heads :  Introductory  Summary  of  Results ;  How 
Work  Has  Been  Accomplished  in  Several  States ;  Assistance  Given  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture ;  The  Relation  of  Club  Work  to  Rural  Educa- 
tion ;    Suggestions  for  Organization ;    List  of  References ;    Statistics. 


I50      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

142.  Agricultural  Clubs  in  Rural  Schools.  Homer  C.  Price,  Ohio  State 
University  Bulletin,  Ser.  7,  No.  10  (1904),  14. 

The  bulletin  contains  suggestions  for  organizing  clubs  in  the  rural 
schools  of  Ohio.  These  suggestions  are  the  outgrowth  of  the  previous 
year's  experience  of  the  first  club  formed  in  Ohio  under  the  auspices  of  the 
students  of  the  Agricultural  Union.  This  bulletin  is  of  special  interest 
because  it  represents  the  beginning  of  organized  effort  to  develop  agricul- 
tural clubs  in  Ohio. 

143.  Farmers^  Institutes  for  Young  People.  John  Hamilton.  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Circular  No.  99 
(1910),  40. 

This  circular  calls  attention  to  "lack  of  adequate  means  for  giving 
vocational  training  in  agriculture  to  young  people  in  rural  districts  after 
they  leave  the  public  school  and  before  they  enter  upon  their  life  occupa- 
tions." Boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  farmers'  institutes  for  young  people,  sub- 
jects for  institute  study,  systematic  course  for  contest  work,  boys'  encamp- 
ments, form  of  organization,  season  for  meeting,  states  and  territories  in 
which  young  people's  institutes  are  organized,  model  constitution  for  young 
people's  institutes,  order  of  topics  for  boys'  institute,  score  cards  for 
various  products  are  some  of  the  subjects  discussed. 

144.  Boys^  Agricultural  Club  Bulletin.  Jessie  Field.  Office  of  Cotmty 
Superintendent  of  Schools,  Clarinda,  la.  (1909),  14. 

This  bulletin  gives  an  account  of  the  boys'  club  of  Page  County,  Iowa, 
including   summary    of    results   of    1908    and    plans    for    1909. 

145.  The  Winnebagoes.  O.  J.  Kern.  Office  of  County  Superintendent  of 
Schools,  Rockford,  111.  (1903),  64. 

This  is  a  report  of  the  Winnebago  County  (111.)  schools,  with  sug- 
gestions for  their  improvement.  One  chapter  (pp.  39-49)  is  devoted  to  boys' 
and  girls'  clubs.  An  account  is  given  of  the  Boys'  Experimental  Club 
organized  in  1902.  This  was  one  of  the  first  boys'  agricultural  clubs  organ- 
ized in  the  United  States. 

146.  Among  Country  Schools.    O.  J.  Kern.    New  York:  Ginn  &  Co.  (1906), 

366. 

This  is  one  of  the  best  contributions  to  rural  education  that  has  been 
written.     One  chapter  is  devoted  to  a  Boys'  Experiment  Club  (pp.   129-57). 

Only  titles  cited  by  nimiber  in  text  are  included  in  the  following  list: 

147.  "What  Constitutes  Successful  Work  in  Agriculture  in  Rural  Schools?" 

B.  M.  Davis.    Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association  for 

igo8,  1189-94. 

This  discussion  is  based  on  a  study  of  replies  to  a  questionnaire  addressed 
to  teachers  and  others  interested  in  agricultural  education. 

148.  "The  District  Schools  in  a  County  as  Educational  and  Social  Centers." 
Jessie  Field.  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Tenth  Year- 
book, Part  II  (1911),  17-19- 

In  the  county  system  described  agricultural  studies  are  an  important 
means  for  bringing  the  school  and  community  into  a  closer  relation.  The 
subjects  are  not  uniform  in  the  various  schools  of  the  county  but  are  chosen 
primarily  because  of  some  dominant  community   interest. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  151 

149.  "The  Present  Status  of  Agricultural  Education  in  the  Public  Secondary 
Schools  of  the  United  States."    C.  H.  Robison.    School  Review,  XIV, 

No.  5  (1911),  333-44- 

This  article  contains  summary  of  agricultural  instruction  in  secondary 
schools  from  1907  to  1910.  Considerable  attention  is  paid  to  efficiency  and 
cost  of  instruction. 

150.  Agricultural  Instruction  in  the  Public  High  Schools  of  the  United  States. 
C.  H.  Robison.     Teachers  College,  Columbia  University  (1910),  205. 

This  book  deals  with  the  present  status  of  agricultural  education  in 
the  secondary  schools  of  the  United  States.  The  chapter  headings  are  as 
follows :  "The  Public  High  School" ;  "Some  Types  of  High  Schools" ; 
"Special  Secondary  Schools  of  Agriculture" ;  "Problems  of  Agricultural 
Instruction  in  the  Secondary  Schools."  Two  appendices,  one  on  legislation, 
the  other  giving  a  very  complete  list  of  references,  are  added.  This  is  a 
valuable  reference  book  on  agricultural  education  bringing  together,  as  it 
does,  an  immense  amount  of  data  hitherto  inaccessible. 

151.  The  Teaching  of  Agriculture  in  the  High  School.  G.  A.  Bricker.  New 
York:  Macmillan  (1911).    XXV,  202. 

The  subject  is  considered  from  a  teaching  standpoint  in  the  following 
chapters :  "Nature  of  Secondary  Agriculture" ;  "Rise  and  Development  of 
Secondary  Education  in  Agriculture  in  the  United  States" ;  "Social  Results" ; 
"As  a  Separate  Science" ;  "Psychological  Determination  of  Sequence" ; 
"Seasonal  Determination  of  Sequence" ;  "Organization  of  the  Course" ; 
"Aims  and  Methods  of  Presentation" ;  "Organization  of  the  Laboratory  and 
Field  Work";  "Illustrative  List  of  Classified  Exercises";  "Educational  Aims, 
Values,  and  Ideals."  This  is  the  first  attempt  to  present  in  detail  the  prob- 
lems of  secondary  agriculture  from  the  point  of  view  of  instruction. 

152.  The  School  of  Agriculture.  University  of  Minnesota  Bulletin,  XIII, 
No.  10  (1910),  66. 

Annual  announcement  of  the  School  of  Agriculture  connected  with  the 
University  of  Minnesota. 

153.  Secondary  Agricultural  Education  in  Alabama.  C.  J.  Owens.  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Bulletin 
220  (1909),  30. 

This  bulletin  contains  "concrete  information  as  to  methods  of  organiz- 
ing courses  of  study,  needed  equipment,  and  cost  of  secondary  agricultural 
schools. 

154.  First  Annual  Report  of  the  Congressional  District  Agricultural  Schools  of 
Georgia.  Georgia  State  College  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  for  December, 
1909. 

A  complete  account  of  the  organization  of  these  schools  is  given. 

155.  Agricultural  High  School.  B.  H.  Crocheron.  Philopolis,  Md. :  Prospec- 
tus of  the  Baltimore  (Md.)  Agricultural  High  School  (1909). 

A  brief  account  of  the  foundation,  purpose,  entrance  requirements, 
courses  of  study,  and  equipment  of  this  school. 


152      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

156.  "Community  Work  in  the  Agricultural  High  School."  B.  H.  Croch- 
ERON.  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Tenth  Yearbook, 
Part  II  (191 1),  91-6. 

A  detailed  description  of  the  community  work  undertaken  by  the  Balti- 
more (Md.)  County  Agricultural  High  School.  It  includes  an  account  of 
the  school,  its  organization,  and  work  among  the  farmers,  farmers'  wives, 
and  young  people  of  the  community.  This  paper  shows  the  great  possibilities 
of  a  rural  high  school  in  its  service  to  an  entire  community,  children  and 
adults  as  well. 

157.  Elementary  Agriculture  in  the  New  Holland  {Ohio)  High  School.     G.  A. 

Bricker.    Ohio  Agricultural  College  Extension  Bulletin,  III,  No.   7 

(1908),  6. 

A  brief  description  of  the  organization  of  work  in  agriculture  with  con- 
crete examples  of  some  of  the  things  actually  accomplished. 

158.  "The  John  Swaney  School."  V.  C.  Kays.  Nature-Study  Review,  IV, 
No.  9  (1908),  271-75. 

An  account  of  the  history  and  of  the  first  two  years'  experience  of  this 
school.  It  is  in  the  country,  "planned  and  built  by  country  people  for  the 
education  of  country  children." 

159.  Opportunity  for  the  California  High  School:  Industrial  and  Agricultural 
Education.  Edward  Hiatt.  California  State  Department  of  Educa- 
tion, Special  Bulletin  (July,  1910),  21. 

This  bulletin  describes  the  plans  for  introducing  agriculture  into  the  high 
school  of  the  city  of  Stockton,  Cal. 

160.  "Agriculture  in  the  Secondary  Schools  of  California."  E.  B.  Babcock. 
Nature-Study  Review,  V  (1909),  210-18. 

The  work  of  several  high  schools  giving  instruction  in  agriculture  is 
described.  The  article  includes  extracts  from  a  report  of  F.  H.  Bolster  of 
the  Gardena  (Los  Angeles  City)  High  School.  This  is  of  particular  interest 
as  it  is  claimed  that  the  Gardena  High  School  is  the  first  city  high  school  to 
"offer  agriculture  as  the  one  principal  purpose  of  the  school." 

161.  The  State  High  School.  A.  E.  Pickard,  Hinckley  (Minn.)  High  School 
Bulletm  (1910),  23. 

A  full  account  of  this  school  is  given,  including  courses  of  study,  gen- 
eral information  as  to  admission,  expenses,  certificates,  scope  and  purposes 
of  courses,  etc.,  detailed  description  of  work  offered  in  agriculture,  manual 
training,  domestic  science,  and  normal  work.  This  school  is  one  of  the 
ten  high  schools  of  Minnesota  receiving  state  aid.  All  of  these  schools  are 
similar  in  organization  to  this  one. 

162.  Schools  of  Agriculture,  Mechanic  Arts,  and  Home  Making.  F.  W.  Howe. 
New  York  State  Department  of  Education,  Special  Circular  (November 
I,  1910). 

This  circular  contains  a  "general  statement  in  reference  to  the  relations 

•    of  this  type  of  school  to  the  so-called  'trade  schools,'  and  the  responsibility 

of  the  Division  of  Trade  Schools  in  respect  to  it,  and  the  text  of  the  law 

relating  to  these  schools,  notes  on  this  law,  brief  descriptions  of  some  typical 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  153 

schools  teaching  agriculture,  mechanic  arts,  and  home-making,  a  list  of 
books,  periodicals,  and  national  and  state  publications  dealing  with  agri- 
culture,   farm    mechanics,    and    household    economy." 

163.  "Syllabus  for  Secondary  Schools:  Agriculture."    Ibid.,  Annual  Report 

(1910),  III,  1-102. 

This  syllabus  includes  apple  growing,  general  fruit  growing,  cereal  and 
forage  crops,  potato  growing,  dairy  husbandry,  animal  husbandry,  poultry 
husbandry.  Each  subject  is  presented  as  a  series  of  exercises,  giving  the 
object  of  the  exercise,  materials,  and  directions  for  study. 

164.  "Department  of  Agriculture. "    E.  A.  Cockefair.    Cape  Girardeau,  Mo. : 

The  Missouri  State  Normal  School  Bulletin,  Catalogue  Number  (1909), 

63-67. 

A  description  of  objects  of  work  offered  and  detailed  outline  of  course 
of  study.  It  is  of  particular  interest  because  provision  is  made  for  giving 
instruction  to  farmers  as  well  as  to  teachers. 

165.  "  The  Curriculum  of  the  Agricultural  High  School. "    Stuart  G.  Noble. 

The  Mississippi  School  Journal,  XV  (191 1),  7-1 1. 

The  writer  presents  the  results  of  a  detailed  study  of  the  curricula  of 
the  agricultural  high  schools  of  Alabama,   Georgia,  and  Mississippi. 

166.  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  on  Agricultural  Education.  R.  W. 
Stimson,  et  al.  Massachusetts  State  Department  of  Education,  Special 
Report  (191 1),  104. 

This  report  was  prepared  for  the  state  legislature  which  requested  that 
an  investigation  be  made  as  to  the  advisability  of  establishing  a  system  of  ag- 
ricultural education  throughout  the  commonwealth.  The  matter  presented 
in  this  report  is  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  literature  of  agricultural  edu- 
cation because  it  outlines  some  plans  not  hitherto  undertaken  in  agricultural 
instruction. 

167.  "Report  of  Committee  on  Encouraging  College-Entrance  Credit  in  High- 
School  Agriculture."  A.  B.  Graham,  Proceedings  of  the  National  Edu- 
cation Association  for  igio,  480-83. 

This  report  is  the  result  of  an  investigation  of  a  committee  appointed 
the  previous  year  by  the  Department  of  Rural  and  Agricultural  Education 
of  the  N.E.A. 

168.  "Practical  Aspects  of  Science  in  Secondary  Education."  W.  R.  Hart, 
et  al.    Ibid.,  446-80. 

This  general  topic  was  discussed  at  a  joint  session  of  the  departments 
of  secondary,  of  science,  and  of  rural  and  agricultural  education.  Following 
the  presentation  of  the  pedagogical  and  scientific  viewpoints  are  brief  dis- 
cussions of  the  subject  as  related  to  the  various  sciences  usually  taught  in 
high  schools. 

169.  "An  Experiment  of  Methods  of  Teaching  Zoology."  J.  P.  Gilbert. 
Journal  of  Educational  Psychology  (Jime,  1910),  321-32. 

This  paper  is  a  preliminary  report  of  a  series  of  investigations  "to  de- 
termine the  relative  merits  of  the  pure-science  and  applied-science  methods 
of  approach  in  teaching  secondary   science." 


154      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

170.  Idem,  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  XI,  No.  3  (March,  191 1),  205-15. 

A  further  report  of  the  experiment  referred  to  in  144.  The  following 
significant  statement  occurs  among  the  conclusions  of  the  author :  "In  former 
discussions  those  who  advocated  applied  science  have  been  forced  to  take 
the  defensive.  While  the  data  here  obtained  do  not  finally  settle  the  question 
of  the  relative  merits  of  the  pure-science  and  applied-science  approach  to 
secondary-school  zoology,  they  do  shift  the  burden  of  proof  to  those  who 
advocate  the  cultural  approach." 

171.  "Development  of  the  Textbook  of  Agriculture  in  North  America." 
L.  H.  Bailey.  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment 
Stations,  Annual  Report  for  1903,  689-712. 

This  article  is  based  on  a  similar  contribution  to  Book  Reviews,  VII 
(1899),  No.  2,  43-53,  but  is  greatly  extended.  An  abridged  discussion  of 
this  subject  by  the  same  author  is  found  in  the  Cyclopedia  of  American 
Agriculture,  IV   (1909),  379-85. 

A  historical  account  of  the  development  of  the  textbook  of  agriculture 
in  North  America  is  given,  and  is  followed  by  an  annotated  chronological 
bibliography  of  fory-nine  titles,  including  the  first  textbook  (1824)  and  all 
others  known  to  the  writer  at  the  time  of  publication   (1903). 

172.  "Textbooks  of  Agriculture."  B.  M.  Davis.  N ature-Sttidy  Review,  V 
(1909),  No.  9,  244-48. 

Four  types  of  textbooks  are  briefly  discussed.  These  are  illustrated  by 
reviews  of  seven  textbooks. 

173.  " Some  Textbooks  for  Secondary-School  Agriculture."  C.  H.  Robison. 
Nature-Study  Review,  III  (1907),  No.  6,  180-85. 

The  article  is  introduced  by  a  general  discussion  of  the  movement  for 
agricultural  education,  and  is  followed  by  a  detailed  account  and  criticism 
of  three  well-known  textbooks  representing  three  distinct  types. 

174.  The  School  and  Farm.  Charles  A.  Eggert.  Chicago:  W.  M.  Welch 
&  Co.  (1902),  279. 

The  book  is  divided  into  six  parts :  Basis  and  Conditions  of  Farming ; 
Field  Crops ;  Animals  on  the  Farm  ;  Forest ;  Science  and  Agriculture  ;  Rural 
Scenery.  Each  part  is  divided  into  chapters,  e.g..  Part  II  into  Raising  and 
Rotation  of  Field  Crops ;  Grain  Crops,  Corn ;  Grass,  Clover,  and  Hay ;  Root 
Crops,   Potatoes ;     Value   of   Different   Fertilizers ;     Silos   and    Ensilage. 

175.  First  Principles  of  Agriculture.  Emmett  S.  Goff  and  D.  D.  Mayne. 
New  York:  American  Book  Co.  (1904),  248. 

"The  first  part  is  based  on  experiments  which  may  be  performed  in  the 
school  or  at  home.  A  summary  entitled  'What  We  Have  Learned'  has 
been  placed  at  the  close  of  each  chapter.  These  summaries  furnish  definite 
statements  for  pupils  to  learn,  and  may  be  used  by  the  teacher  as  a  basis 
for  drill  work." 

There  are  forty  chapters :  Dead  and  Living  Matter ;  Soil  and  Soil 
Water ;  Plant  and  Water ;  How  Plants  Grow  ;  Ideal  Soil ;  Soil  Fertility ; 
Humus  ;  Clover ;  Rotation  ;  Saving  Soil  Moisture  ;  Plant  Parasites  ;  Seeds 
and  Soil  Water ;  Air  and  Germination ;  Seed  Testing ;  How  Seeds  Come  Up ; 
Value  of  Large  Seeds;  Budding;  Transplanting;  Plant  Improvement;  The 
Flower ;  Crop  and  Weeds ;  Garden  Orchard ;  Insect  Destroyers ;  Animal 
Husbandry  ;    Dairy  Breeds  ;    Beef  Breeds  ;    Feeding  ;    Horses  ;    Sheep  ;  Swine ; 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  155 

Poultry ;  Bee-keeping ;  Home  and  School  Grounds.  There  is  an  Appendix 
of  fifteen  pages,  including  various  tables,  and  also  directions  for  Babcock 
milk-testing. 

176.  Agriculture  through  the  Laboratory  and  School  Garden.    C.  R.  Jackson 
and  Mrs.  L.  S.  Daugherty.    New  York:  Orange  Judd  Co.  (1905), 

X+403- 

The  author's  aim  is  to  "present  actual  experimental  work  in  every  phase 
of  the  subject  possible."  Contents :  Nature  and  Formation  of  the  Soil ; 
Classification  and  Physical  Properties  of  Soils ;  Soil  Moisture  and  Prepara- 
tion of  the  Soil ;  The  Soil  as  Related  to  Plants ;  Leguminous  Plants ;  Prin- 
ciples of  Feeding ;  Rotation  of  Crops ;  Milk  and  Its  Care ;  Propagation  of 
Plants ;  Improvement  of  Plants ;  Enemies  of  Plants ;  Ornamentation  of 
Grounds.  General  References,  Agricultural  Publications,  List  of  Experi- 
ment Stations,  Publishing  Houses,  and  Glossary  follow.  For  critical  sum- 
mary of  his  book  see  148. 

177.  Elementary  Agriculture  with  Practical  Arithmetic.     K.  L.  Hatch  and 
J.  A.  Haselwood.    Chicago:  Row,  Peterson  &  Co.  (1905),  198. 

Each  chapter  is  followed  by  a  set  of  practical  farm  problems  to  be  used 
as  exercises  for  arithmetic  class.  Contents  :  Growth  of  Plants  ;  Plant  Water ; 
Plant  Foods ;  Soil ;  Soil  and  Crops ;  Wearing  the  Soil ;  Legumes ;  Drainage  ; 
The  Crop  ;  Insects ;  Weeds  ;  Farm  Stock  ;  Feeding ;  The  Three  C's ;  Dairy ; 
Poultry ;  Special  Crops ;  Farm  Buildings ;  Accounts ;  Forestry ;  Grounds  ; 
School  Gardening ;    Home  Gardening ;    Barn  Plan  and  Ventilation. 

178.  Elements  of  Agriculture.    J.  H.  Shepperd  and  J.  C.  McDowell.     St. 
Paul:  Webb  Publishing  Co.  (1905),  254. 

This  book  is  intended  especially  for  use  in  the  Northwestern  states. 
"This  course  of  study  follows  the  seasons :  the  work  on  farm  crops  coming 
in  the  fall,  that  on  domestic  animals  in  the  winter,  and  the  work  on  soils 
and  the  beautifying  of  the  home  and  school  grounds  forms  a  large  part  of 
the   course   during  the  spring  months." 

179.  The   First   Book   of  Farming.     Charles   L.    Goodrich.    New   York: 
Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.  (1905),  xx+259. 

The  subject  is  developed  by  means  of  experiments  as  follows :  Roots ; 
Soils ;  Relation  of  Soils  to  Water ;  Forms  of  Soil  Water ;  Loss  of  Soil 
Water ;  Soil  Temperature ;  Plant  Food  in  the  Soil ;  Seeds  ;  Seed  Planting ; 
Spading  and  Plowing ;  Harrowing  and  Rolling ;  Leaves ;  Stems ;  Flowers  ; 
A  Fertile  Soil ;  Soil  Water ;  After  Cultivation  of  Crops ;  Farm  Manures ; 
Commercial  Fertilizers ;     Rotation  of  Crops ;    Farm   Drainage. 

180.  Agriculture:  Its  Fundamental  Principles.    Andrew  M.  Soule  and  Edna 
Lee  TuRPiN.    Richmond,  Va.:  B.  F.  Johnson  Pub.  Co.  (1907),  320. 

"The  aim  of  this  book  is  so  to  state  the  scientific  facts  and  principles 
which  underlie  the  processes  of  agriculture  that  they  will  be  intelligible 
and  interesting  to  young  people."  Contents :  The  Soil ;  The  Plant ;  Soil 
Improvement ;  Field,  Orchard,  and  Garden  Crops ;  Crop  Enemies  and 
Friends;  Domestic  Animals;  Miscellaneous,  Including  Trees,  Tools,  Roads, 
School  Gardens,  etc.  An  Appendix  giving  tables,  references,  etc.,  is 
included. 


156      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

181.  Rural  School  Agriculture.    Charles  W.  Davis.    New  York:  Orange 
Judd  Co.  (1907),  vii+267. 

"This  book  is  a  manual  of  exercises  covering  many  phases  of  agriculture" 
as  follows  :  Plants ;  Soils  and  Fertilizers ;  Corn ;  Wheat  and  Oats ;  Cotton  ; 
Feeds  and  Feeding ;  Milk ;  Fruits ;  Home  Grounds ;  Insects ;  Spraying. 
There  is  a  Glossary  and  an  Appendix  of  useful  tables. 

182.  Agriculture  for  Southern  Schools.    J.   F.  Duggar.    New  York:  Mac- 
millan  (1908),  355. 

As  the  title  indicates,  this  book  is  intended  especially  for  southern 
schools,  the  adaptation  being  the  use  of  the  best  practices  and  materials 
of  southern  agriculture  for  illustration. 

The  first  part  of  the  book  deals  with  plant  growth,  including  the  plant's 
relation  to  the  soil.  The  second  part  deals  with  crops,  including  enemies 
(the  cotton  boll-weevil  receiving  particular  attention),  animal  husbandry, 
farm  machinery.     Important  reference  tables  are  arranged  in  an  Appendix. 

183.  dements  of  Agriculture.    W.   C.   Welborn.    New  York:  Macmillan 

(1908),  xvi+359. 

This  book  is  prepared  for  use  in  southern  and  western  elementary 
schools.  Three  phases  of  the  subject  are  taken  up  as  follows :  Crop  Produc- 
tion, including  the  plant  and  its  environment,  characteristics  of  various 
field  crops,  soil  fertility,  etc. ;  Special  Crops,  in  which  the  management  of 
each  crop  is  described  in  detail ;  Animal  Production,  including  feeding  and 
ration,  care  of  animals,  various  kinds  of  farm  animals  in  detail.  An  Ap- 
pendix gives  a  classification  of  the  most  common  economic  plants,  plant 
diseases,  and  insect  enemies  of  plants  and  their  remedies,  score  cards  for 
judging,  and  a  Glossary. 

184.  First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility.    Alfred  Vivian.    New  York:  Orange 
Judd  Co.  (1908),  265. 

The  book  is  intended  for  home  reading  as  well  as  for  school  use.  It 
is  divided  into  four  parts :  Plant  Food,  Its  Nature  and  Source ;  Making 
Potential  Plant  Food  Available ;    Barnyard  Manure ;    Commercial  Fertilizers. 

185.  Manual  of  Agriculture  for  the  Common  Schools  of  Illinois.    D.  O.  Barto. 

New  York:  Apple  ton  &  Co.  (1908),  52. 

"The  writer  has  tried  to  outline  in  this  little  guide  sets  of  studies  and 
exercises  in  agriculture  on  topics  of  general  importance  and  interest  to 
farmers  in  all  sections  of  Illinois."  The  "sets  of  exercises"  are  as  follows : 
What  Is  a  Soil  ?  Water ;  Demands  on  Water  Supply  of  the  Soil ;  Saving 
the  Soil  Water ;  Effect  of  Color  on  Temperature  of  Soils ;  Plant  and  Essen- 
tials of  Plant  Production ;  Seed ;  Testing  the  Seed ;  Importance  of  Fine 
Tilth ;  Seed  Planting ;  Roots ;  Root  Tubercles ;  Inoculating  the  Soil ;  Plot 
Experiments;  How  Necessary  Fertilizers  Can  Be  Obtained;  Care  of  Plot 
Experiments  in  Vacation ;  Studies  in  Corn ;  Pollination.  Two  pages  of 
references  are  given. 

186.  One  Hundred  Lessons  in  Elementary  Agriculture.    A.  W.  Nolan.    Mor- 
gan town,  W.Va.:  Acme  Publishing  Co.  (1908). 

The  wide  range  of  topics  included  in  the  hundred  lessons  touches  all 
important  phases  of  agricultural  problems.  Soils,  seeds,  gardens,  trees, 
crops,  insects,  weeds,  poultry,  foods,  birds,  machinery,  rural  civics,  and  eco- 
nomics— these  suggested  by  titles  of  prominent  lessons — indicate  the  scope 
of  the  book.  Much  of  it  is  nature-study  with  agricultural  materials  and 
some  of  it  is  strictly  the  technical  aspect  of  the  science  of  agriculture. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  157 

187.  Teachers'  Manual  of  Elementary  Agriculture,  Nature-Study,  and  Domestic 
Science.  F.  E.  Thompson,  T.  S.  Parsons,  et  al.  Boston:  Ginn  &  Co. 
(1908). 

This  manual  was  prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  Colorado  Teachers' 
Association.  After  an  introduction  dealing  with  the  educational  aspects  of 
the  subject  follow  chapters  on  Soils,  Plant  Life,  School  Gardening  and 
Improving  School  Grounds,  Field  Crops,  Insects  and  Birds,  Live  Stock,  and 
Domestic  Science.  Five  pages  are  devoted  to  a  Bibliography  for  agricul- 
ture and  nature-study  work. 

188.  Agriculture  for  Common  Schools.  Martin  L.  Fisher  and  Fassett  A. 
Cotton.    New  York:  Scribner  (1909),  xxiii+381. 

The  book  is  divided  into  five  sections  as  follows :  I,  Soils ;  II,  Farm 
Crops;  III,  Horticulture;  IV,  Animal  Husbandry;  V,  Dairying,  There  are 
several  appendices.  One  of  these  deals  with  the  teaching  of  the  subject 
with  special  reference  to  correlation  with  reading,  arithmetic,  geography,  etc. 

189.  Agriculture  in  the  Public  Schools.  Lester  S.  Ivins.  Lebanon,  O. :  March 
Bros.  (1909),  156. 

This  is  a  handbook  for  teachers.  It  includes  suggestions  for  organiza- 
tion of  rural  schools,  teaching  of  nature-study  and  agriculture  in  rural 
schools,  plans  for  conducting  parents'  meetings,  public  displays  of  school 
work,  corn,  potato,  and  vegetable  growing  contests,  home,  rural,  and  city- 
school  flower  gardens,  and  other  valuable  information  that  is  intended  to  be 
helpful  to  the  teacher. 

i()o.  Elements  of  Agriculture.    G.F.Warren.   New  York:  Macmillan  (1909), 

xxiv+434. 

"This  book  is  intended  for  use  in  high  schools,  academies,  and  normal 
schools,  and  in  colleges  when  only  a  short  time  can  be  given  to  the  subject." 
The  author  has  attempted  to  carry  out  the  suggestions  of  the  Committee  on 
Instruction  in  Agriculture  of  the  Association  of  American  Colleges  and 
Experiment  Stations.  All  important  phases  of  agriculture  are  discussed 
in  the  eighteen  chapters  that  make  up  the  body  of  the  book.  The  text  of 
each  chapter  is  followed  by  questions,  laboratory  exercises,  and  collateral 
reading.  A  stunmary  of  chap,  v,  "The  Soil,"  will  illustrate  the  method  of 
treatment  which  is  typical  of  each  chapter :  What  Soil  Is ;  Rock  Particles 
of  the  Soil ;  Soil  Water,  Including  Irrigation  and  Drainage ;  Soil  Air ;  Or- 
ganic Matter  of  the  Soil ;  Life  in  the  Soil.  The  chapter  is  reviewed  by 
means  of  twenty-four  questions.  The  following  is  typical :  "Where  does  a 
fence  post  rot  most  rapidly?  Why?"  Fifteen  excellent  laboratory  and  field 
exercises  give  concreteness  to  the  text.  Ten  references  are  given  in  the 
Collateral  reading.  There  are  twenty  pages  of  appendix  containing  informa- 
tion useful  to  teacher  and  pupil. 

191.  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture.  A.  M.  Ferguson  and  L.  L.  Lewis. 
Sherman,  Tex.:   Ferguson  Publishing  Co.  (1909),  xvi+318. 

The  aim  of  the  book  is  perhaps  best  expressed  by  the  authors :  "Our 
own  ideas  are  that  the  primary  obj.ect  of  a  text  on  agriculture,  intended  for 
the  common  schools,  is  to  satisfy  the  natural  interest  of  all  children  about 
the  whys  of  common  farm  conditions." 

The  book  is  in  three  parts :  Part  I,  deals  with  the  plant,  soil  diseases  of 
plants,  injurious  insects,  etc. ;  Part  II,  with  animals,  including  dairying ; 
Part  III,  is  devoted  to  special  topics,  such  as  home  lot,  school  gardens,  for- 
estry, etc.  There  is  an  Appendix  of  nine  parts,  including  references,  formu- 
lae for  sprays,  tables  of  nutrients,  rainfall,  etc. 


IS8      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

192.  Practical  Agriculture.  John  W.  Wilkinson.  New  York:  American 
Book  Co.  (1909),  383. 

This  is  a  "brief  treatise  on  agriculture,  horticulture,  forestry,  stock 
feeding,  animal  husbandry,  and  road  building."  These  subjects  are  dis- 
cussed in  forty-five  chapters.  In  the  Appendix  of  twenty-two  pages  are  found 
useful  tables  and  references,  and  a  list  of  apparatus  needed  for  conducting 
laboratory    courses    in    agriculture. 

193.  A  Practical  Arithmetic.  F.  L.  Stevens,  Tait,  Butler,  and  Mrs.  F.  L. 
Stevens.    New  York:  Scribner  (1909),  ix+386. 

In  addition  to  the  usual  aims  sought  in  arithmetic  tests,  the  authors 
have  included  "teaching  valuable  facts  by  basing  the  problems  of  the  book 
upon  problems  of  real  life."  The  book  contains  a  good  collection  of  inter- 
esting and  valuable  applications  of  arithmetic  to  the  affairs  of  farm  life. 
Instead  of  the  hypothetical  problems  concerning  what  A  and  B  did,  occur 
such  problems  as,  "If  kainit  contains  12^2  per  cent  potash  and  muriate  of 
potash  contains  50  per  cent  potash,  how  many  pounds  of  kainit  will  it  take 
to  supply  as  much  potash  as  40  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash?" 

194.  Practical  Nature-Study  and  Elementary  Agriculture.  John  M.  Coulter, 
John  G.  Coulter,  and  Alice  Jean  Patterson.  New  York:  Apple- 
ton  &  Co.  (1909),  ix+3S4. 

This  is  a  manual  for  use  of  teachers  and  normal  students.  It  is  divided 
into  four  parts.  The  first  part  considers  the  educational  aspects  of  nature- 
study  and  agriculture ;  the  second,  "a  detailed  topical  outline  by  grades  and 
seasons  of  the  materials  used  in  nature-study  in  the  training  school  at  the 
Illinois  State  Normal  University" ;  the  third,  "a  shorter  outline  for  work 
in  the  lower  grades  arranged  according  to  seasons,  and  leading  more  directly 
to  agricultural  studies  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades" ;  the  fourth  "com- 
prises certain  chapters  upon  general  topics ;  material  which  has  been  found 
serviceable  for  teachers  whose  general  science  training  has  been  slight  or 
lacking  entirely." 

195.  Agriculture  for  Schools  of  the  Pacific  Slope.  E.  W.  Hilgard  and  W.  J. 
Osterhout.    New  York:  Macmillan  (1910),  xix-l-428. 

This  book  contains  twenty-three  chapters  devoted  to  plants  and  their 
cultivation.  Five  chapters  are  devoted  to  animals.  This  emphasis  on  plants 
is  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that  horticulture  is  one  of  the  chief  agricultural 
industries  of  the  Pacific  Slope.  The  living  plant  in  all  its  relations  receives 
more  attention  than  is  usual  in  an  agricultural  textbook.  The  book  could 
very  well  be  used  as  a  textbook  of  botany.  It  is  illustrated  by  209  good 
illustrations.  Elementary  School  Agriculture  ( 1 9 1 1 ) ,  a  teacher's  manual  to 
accompany  this  text,  has  been  prepared  by  E.  B.  Babcock  and  C.  A. 
Stebbins. 

ig6.  Domesticated  Animals  and  Plants.    F.Davenport.    Boston:  Ginn&Co. 

(1910),  xiv-l-321. 

This  is  a  brief  treatise  upon  the  origin  and  development  of  domestic 
races  with  special  reference  to  the  methods  of  improvement.  It  is  in  two 
parts,  one  "constituting  a  brief  course  covering  the  essential  principles  that 
are  fundamental  to  an  understanding  of  hereditary  transmission  and  of  the 
business  of  plant  and  animal  improvement" ;  the  other  deals  with  the  origin 
of  domesticated  races. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  159 

igy.  Farm  Development.    Willett  M.  Hayes.    New  York:  Orange  Judd  Co. 
(1910),  xii+391- 

This  is  "an  introductory  book  in  agriculture,  including  a  discussion  of 
soils,  selecting  and  planning  farms,  subduing  the  fields,  drainage,  irrigation, 
roads,  fences,  together  with  introductory  chapters  concerning  farm  business, 
and  the  relations  of  the  general   science  of  agriculture." 

igS.  Manual  of  Agriculture:  Soils  and  Crops.    D.  O.  Barto.    Boston:  D.  C. 
Heath  &  Co.  (1911),  xi+492. 

This  manual  is  a  series  of  laboratory  and  field  experiments  in  two 
parts,  one  relating  to  soils;  the  other  to  crops.  The  work  included  is  con- 
sidered sufficient  to  cover  one  year  of  the  high-school  course  in  agriculture, 
and  is  intended  to  "offer  training'  in  science  comparable  to  that  -furnished 
by  the  other  science  courses  in  good  high  schools." 

199.  Outlines  of  Agriculture  for  Rural  Schools.     C.   M.   Evans.     Chicago: 
W.  M.  Welch  Mfg.  Co.  (1910),  31. 

A  year's  work  is  outlined  for  rural  schools  with  one  lesson  each  week. 

200.  Fundamentals    of    Agriculture.    James    Edward    Halligan.    Boston: 

D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  (1911),  xi+492. 

"Every  subject  in  this  book  is  written  by  an  expert  in  his  line.  This 
idea  was  carried  out  in  order  to  furnish  the  student  with  the  best  informa- 
tion that  could  be  obtained.  The  editor  thought  it  would  be  better  to  have 
authorities  treat  of  the  various  topics  rather  than  write  the  book  alone,  as 
there  are  very  few  men  competent  enough  to  warrant  their  writing  the  best 
book  on  agriculture."  Thirty-three  experts  in  various  fields  of  agriculture 
have   contributed. 

201.  An  Introduction  to  Agriculture.    A.  A.  Upham.    New  York:  Appleton 
&  Co.  (1911),  xi+270. 

The  aim  of  the  book  is  "to  touch  those  matters  which  would  be  most 
useful  to  the  pupils  in  our  rural  schools,  and  especially  to  give  the  under- 
lying theory  for  many  farm  processes  and  practices."  There  are  twenty- 
one  chapters  and  an  Appendix.  AH  of  the  usual  subjects  of  agriculture 
are  covered  in  these  chapters,  and  the  Appendix  contains  references  and  a 
number  of  useful  tables. 

202.  Beginnings  of  Agriculture.    Albert  R.  Mann.    New  York:  Macmillan, 
(1911),  X+317. 

"This  book  is  designed  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  the  study  of 
agriculture  into  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  of  our  elementary  schools. 
The  book  is  founded  011  the  suggestions  in  the  Report  of  the  Committee 
on  Industrial  Education  in  Schools  for  Rural  Communities  of  the  National 
Education  Association.  It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  author  to  cover  the 
work  very  largely  in  a  nature-study  spirit,  by  which  it  is  meant  that  the 
pupil  shall  be  brought  into  as  close  touch  as  possible  with  the  actual 
farms,  soils,  crops,  animals  and  affairs."  There  are  four  parts :  I,  The 
Affairs  of  Agriculture,  eight  chapters ;  II,  The  Soil,  seven  chapters ;  III, 
Farm  Plants,  sixteen  chapters ;  IV,  Farm  Animals,  ten  chapters.  Each 
chapter  is  followed  by  a  series  of  problems  dealing  concretely  with  various 
phases  of  the  subject  in  text.  There  are  two  hundred  and  forty-one  such 
problems  in   the  book. 


INDEX 


Agriculture,  U.S.  Department  of:  agri- 
cultural education,  ii;  Association  of 
Agricultural  Colleges,  8,  64;  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry,  11;  farmers'  insti- 
tutes, 12;  Forest  Service,io;  history  of, 
7;  Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 
7,  11;  organization  of,  9;  Weather 
Bureau,  9 

Agricultural  Colleges,  8,  38,  11 1,  126; 
association  of,  8,  64 

Agricultural-College  high  schools,  120 

Agricultural  education,  U.S.  specialist,  12 

Agricultxural  extension,  38,  87,  in; 
publications,  40 

Alabama:  Agricultural  College,  43,  46; 
district  agricultural  schools,  120;  Edu- 
cational Association,  66;  Farm  Life 
Club,  108;   legislation,  20 

American  Association  of  Farmers'  Insti- 
tute Workers,  90 

Arithmetic,  128 

Arizona,  20 

Arkansas:  Agricultural  College,  43; 
district  agricultural  schools,  27,  120; 
legislation,  20,  27 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  38,  47,  119,  127,  130,  131 
Baltimore    Coimty,    Md.,    high   school, 

loi,  121 
Barnard's  Journal  of  Education,  67 
Bishop,  E.  C,  74 
Boys'  clubs,  30,  41,  44,   76,   116,   118; 

agricultural,  42,  105;   com,  106 
Boy  Scouts,  III 
Brown,  Elmer  E.,  18 
Bureau  of  Education,  U.S.,  14 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.S.,  11 
Burkett  bill,  16 
Butterfield,  K.  L.,  64 

CaUfornia:  Agricultural  College,  39,  40, 
43,  46,  91;  high  schools:  Gardena, 
122,  Polytechnic,  124,  San  Diego,  122, 
Stockton,  122;  legislation,  20,  27,  37; 
State  Normal  School,  49,  54 

Canada,  78 

Cecil  Coimty,  Md.,  62 

Clapp,  Henry  L.,  62 

Claxton,  P.  P.,  18 

College  entrance,  64,  126 

Colleges,  agricultural,  38,  116,  126 

Colorado:  legislation,  20;  State  Normal 
School,  54 


Columbia  College,  7,  95 
Columbian  Magazine,  68 
Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  85 
Commissioner  of  Education,   U.S.,    14; 

state,  19 
Committee    on    Industrial    Education, 

N.E.A.,  61,  62 
Committee  of  Twelve,  N.E.A.,  61 
Congressional  district  schools,  63,  120 
Connecticut:    Agricultural  College,  46; 

legislation,  20 
Course  of  study  in  agriculture,  8 
Consolidation,  76 
Cornell  University,  25,  38,  39,  87,  96; 

leaflets,  15,  19 
Crosby,  D.  J.,  12,  64 

Davenport,  Eugene,  50 

Davis  bill,  16,  62,  64 

De  Fellenburg,  69 

Delaware,  19,  43 

Delaware  Coimty,  la.,  112 

Demonstration  work,  government,  in 

Department  of  Agricultural  Education: 
agricultural  colleges,  43,  44;  National 
Education  Association,  64;  New  York, 
123;   Pennsylvania,  36 

Department  of  Agriculture,  U.S.,  7 

Department  of  Superintendence,  N.E.A., 

63 
District  agricultural  schools,  63,  120 
Dimn  Coimty  School  of  Agriculture,  62 

Educational  periodicals,  67 
Elementary  schools,  116 
Experiment  clubs.    See  Boys'  clubs 
Experiment  Station,  Office,  of,  n 
Experiment  Station  Record,  12,  83 
Extension,  agricultural,  38,  87,  89,  in; 
methods,  38 

Farm  boys'  encampment,  88 

Farm  Life  Club,  108 

Farmers':  AUiance,  98,  99;  bulletins,  9; 
clubs,  100;  institutes,  12,  85,  89; 
institute  specialist,  12,  90,  no;  insti- 
tutes for  yoimg  people,  no 

Florida:  Agricultural  College,  41;  legis- 
lation, 20 

Forest  Service,  U.S.,  10 

Forestry:  in  agriculture,  n;  in  geog- 
raphy, II ;   in  nature-study,  ii 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  94 


161 


i62      AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 


Gardena  (Cal.)  high  school,  122 
Gardens,  school,  11,  14,  52,  102 
Georgia:    Agricultural   College,   43,   46; 

district  agricultural  schools,  63,   120; 

legislation,  20;  Teachers'Association,  66 
Grange,  98 

Hamilton,  John,  12 

Harris,  W.  T.,  59 

Harvard,  7 

Harvey,  L.  D.,  66 

Hatch  act,  7 

Hays,  WiUet  M.,  13,  66 

High  schools,  agriculture  in :  agricultiual- 

college,  120;    city,  122;    county,  120; 

district,  120;   normal,  124;   state  aid, 

123;  technical,  124;  village-township, 

121 
Hinckley  State  High  School,  Minnesota, 

123 
Holbrook,  Josiah,  68 
Hopwyl,  70 
Hortictdtural  Society:  of  Iowa,  loi;  of 

Massachusetts,  102;  of  New  Jersey,  100 

Idaho:  Agricultiural  College,  43;  legisla- 
tion, 21,  28,  37 

Illinois:  Agricultural  College,  39,  40,  43, 
46;  Grange,  99;  Industrial  League, 
96;  legislation,  21;  School  News,  74; 
State  Fair,  88;   state  normal  schools, 

49, S3,  54 
Indiana:    Agricultural  College,  39,  43; 

legislation,  21 
Industrial  education,  N.E.A.,  60,  61 
Industrial  League  of  Illinois,  96 
International  Congress  of  Education,  60 
Iowa:    Agricultural   College,   43;    corn 

clubs,  112,  113;  legislation,  20,  28,  37 

John  Swaney  Consolidated  School,  Illi- 
nois, 62 

Johnson  State  Normal  School,  Vermont, 
48 

Journal  of  Education,  67 

Junior  Demonstration  Work,  11,  108 

Kansas:  Agricultural  College,  39,  41,  43, 
46;  boys'  clubs,  106;  legislation,  21, 
28,  37;  Rural  Life  Scouts,  in;  State 
Normal  School,  54 

Kentucky,  18,  21 

Keokuk,  la.,  18,  21 

Kem,  O.  J.,  76 

Kingsville  Township,  Ohio,  76 

Knapp,  S.  A.,  108 

Laboratory  exercises,  130 
Land  Grant  act,  14,  96 


Lethe,  S.  C,  68 

Louisiana:  Agricultural  College,  43; 
agricultural  high  schools,  28;  boys' 
clubs,  41,  104;  legislation,  21,  28,  37 

Macdonald  Movement,  79 

Maine:  Agricultural  College,  43;  legis- 
lation, 21,  29 

Manual  training,  60 

Martin,  O.  B.,  107 

Maryland:  Baltimore  Coimty  Agri- 
cultural High  School,  loi;   legislation, 

21,  29,37 

Massachusetts:  Agricultiural  College,  40, 
43,46;  Agricultural  Society,  96;  Board 
of  Agriculture,  87;  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, 125;  Horticiiltural  Society,  102; 
legislation,  21,  29,  37;  project  plan, 
29,  125 

Miami  University,  56 

Michigan:  Agricultural  College,  40,  43; 
agricultiu^al  extension,  91;  Agricul- 
tural Society,  96;  legislation,  22,  30; 
State  Association  of  Farmers'  Clubs, 
100;  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  85; 
state  normal  schools,  49 

Minnesota:  Agricultural  College,  40,  46; 
high  schools,  31,  120,  123;  legislation, 
22, 31,  37;  State  Fair,  88;  state  normal 
schools,  49 

Mississippi:  Agricultural  College,  42, 
43,  46;    boys'  clubs,  107;    legislation, 

22,  32,  37 

Missouri:  Agricultural  College,  43,  44, 
46;  Board  of  Agriculture,  87;  legisla- 
tion, 22;  state  normal  schools,  ^i,  54, 

55.  124 
Montana,  22,  32,  37 
Moore,  Jerry,  107 
Morrill  act,  7,  15 

National    Committee    for    Agricultural 

Education,  N.E.A.,  62 
National  Education  Association,  58 
National  Teachers'  Association,  58 
Nature-Study  Review,  72,  73 
Nebraska:   Agricultvu-al  CoUege,  42,  43; 

boys'  clubs,  42,  74;  legislation,  22,  32; 

State  Fair,  87;    state  normal  schools, 

53;  Nebraska  Teacher,  74 
Nelson  act,  15 
Nevada,  32 
New    Hampshire:    Agricultural  College, 

39;   legislation,  23,  a 
New  Jersey:    Agricultural  College,  46; 

Horticultiu-al    Society,    100;     legisla- 
tion, 23,  33,  37 
New  Mexico,  23 


INDEX 


i6' 


New  York:  Agricultural  College,  37,  41, 
45,  46,  96;  Agricultural  Society,  95, 
96;  Department  of  Agriculture,  87,  92; 
Department  of  Education,  92,  123; 
high  schools,  123;  legislation,  23,  25, 
26,  33,  37,  123;  Nixon  law,  25;  state 
normal  schools,  49,  50,  51,  53 

Nixon  law,  25 

Normal  Agricultural  Society,  53 

North  Carolina:  Agricultural  College, 
43,  46;  legislation,  23,  ss,  37;  State 
Normal  School,  49 

North  Dakota:  Agricultural  College,  46, 
92;  legislation,  23,  34,  37 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.S.,  11 
Ohio:    Agricultural  College,  40,  43,  46; 

boys'  clubs,   105;    district  supervisor, 

3S;  legislation,  23,  35,  37,  117;    New 

Holland    high     school,     121;      State 

Normal  College,  56 
Oklahoma:   Agricultural  College,  43,  46, 

92;    district  agricultural  schools,  120; 

legislation,  23;    State  Fair,  88;    state 

normal  schools,  49 
Oregon:    Agricultural   CoUege,   43,   46; 

legislation,  23;    state  normal  schools, 

47 
Oswego,  69 

OtweWs  Farmer  Boy,  113 
Otwell,  W.  B.,  113 

Page  bill,  18,  64 

Pennsylvania:    Agricultural  College,  39, 

40,  43,  46;    Agricultural  Society,  95; 

legislation,   23,  36,  37;    state  normal 

schools,  49,  50 
Periodical  literatiu-e,  75 
Pestalozzi,  69 
Phenological  studies,  10 
Philadelphia  agricultural  societies,  94 
Philbrook,  John  D.,  59 
Pickering,  Timothy,  94 
Porter,  John  A.,  68 

Rhode  Island,  39,  43,  46 

Rock  Hill  State  Normal  School,  49 

Rural  and  agricultural  education,  N.E.A., 

62,  64,  65 
Rural  high  school,  115 
Rural  Life  Scouts,  1 1 1 
Rural-school  curriculum,  117 
Rural-school  problem,  60 

St.  Louis  Exposition,  boys'  exhibits,  113 

School  Agriculture,  73 

School  gardens,  11,  14,  52,  73,  102 

School  News,  74 

School  Science  and  Mathematics,  72 


Schools,  secondary,  119 

Schools,  state  normal:  California,  49,  53, 
54;  Colorado,  54;  Illinois,  49,  53,  54; 
Iowa,  49;  Kansas,  49,  54;  Massachu- 
setts, 53;  Michigan,  49;  Minnesota, 
49;  Missouri,49,  53,  54,  ss;  Nebraska, 
49>  S3;  New  Jersey,  53;  New  York, 
49,  50;  North  CaroUna,  49;  Ohio,  49, 
56;  Oklahoma,  49;  Oregon,  47;  Penn- 
sylvania, 49,  50;  South  Carolina,  49; 
Utah,  49;  Vermont,  48;  Virginia,  55; 
Wyoming,  48 

Seed  collection,  ii 

South  Carolina:  Agricultural  Society,  94; 
boys'  clubs,  107;  legislation,  23; 
State  Department  of  Agriculture,  48; 
State  Normal  School,  49 

South  Dakota,  24 

State  fairs,  88,  89 

State  organizations  for  agriculture,  85 

State  teachers'  associations,  66 

Summary  of  legislation,  27,  37 

Summer  schools,  46 

Teachers'  associations,  58 

Tennessee:   Agricultural  College,  40,  43, 

46;  legislation,  24 
Texas,  24,  36,  37 
True,  A.  C,  66 
Turner,  Jonathan  B.,  97 

United  States:  Bureau  of  Education,  14; 

Department  of  Agricultiu-e,  7 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  95 
Utah:     Agricultural    College,    43,    46; 

legislation,  24,  36,  37;    State  Normal 

School,  49 

Vermont:    Agricultural  College,  43,  46; 

legislation,     24,    36;      State    Normal 

School,  48,  49 
Virginia,  24,  55 

Washington:    Agricultural    College,   43, 
46;  legislation,  24,  36,  37 
Washington,  George,  94 

Waterford  High  School,  Pa.,  62 

Wehrli,  69 

West  Virginia:  Agricultural  College,  39, 
43,  /J 6,  92;  legislation,  24 

Winnebago  Coimty,  111.,  76 

Wisconsin:  Agricultural  College,  43,  46, 
92;  agricultural  high  schools,  120; 
legislation,  24,  36,  37 

Wyoming:  Agricultural  College,  46;  legis- 
lation, 24;  state  normal  schools,  48 

Yale,  7 
Y.M.C.A.,  106,  112 


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